Nanoscale semiconductor/catalyst interfaces in photoelectrochemistry

Semiconductor structures (for example, films, wires, particles) used in photoelectrochemical devices are often decorated with nanoparticles that catalyse fuel-forming reactions, including water oxidation, hydrogen evolution or carbon-dioxide reduction. For high performance, the catalyst nanoparticles must form charge-carrier-selective contacts with the underlying light-absorbing semiconductor, facilitating either hole or electron transfer while inhibiting collection of the opposite carrier. Despite the key role played by such selective contacts in photoelectrochemical energy conversion and storage, the underlying nanoscale interfaces are poorly understood because direct measurement of their properties is challenging, especially under operating conditions. Using an n-Si/Ni photoanode model system and potential-sensing atomic force microscopy, we measure interfacial electron-transfer processes and map the photovoltage generated during photoelectrochemical oxygen evolution at nanoscopic semiconductor/catalyst interfaces. We discover interfaces where the selectivity of low-Schottky-barrier n-Si/Ni contacts for holes is enhanced via a nanoscale size-dependent pinch-off effect produced when surrounding high-barrier regions develop during device operation. These results thus demonstrate (1) the ability to make nanoscale operando measurements of contact properties under practical photoelectrochemical conditions and (2) a design principle to control the flow of electrons and holes across semiconductor/catalyst junctions that is broadly relevant to different photoelectrochemical devices.