Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jan 4, 2026
Bedside Ultrasound for Guiding Fluid Removal in Patients with Pulmonary Edema: The Reverse-FALLS Protocol
Published on: July 28, 2018
Immersion pulmonary edema: case reports from Oceania
Carl Edmonds1, John Lippmann2,3, Andrew Fock3,4
1MRCP, retired.
Introduction:
We aimed to document identified cases of immersion pulmonary edema (IPE) in divers from Oceania (the Indo-Pacific region) from January 2002 to May 2018, inclusive.
Method:
Cases were identified using various sources, including searches of the Divers Alert Network Asia-Pacific (DAN AP) Fatality Database, published case reports, and interviews with survivors who had reported their incident to DAN AP. Where available, investigations, pathology and autopsy results were obtained. Only incidents diagnosed as IPE by diving physicians or pathologists with experience in the investigation of diving accidents were included. Individual case histories and outcomes, together with brief individual summaries of the associations and possible contributing factors were recorded.
Results:
Thirty-one IPE incidents in divers from Oceania were documented. There were two surface snorkelers, 22 scuba air divers and seven nitrox divers which included three closed-circuit rebreathers (CCR). The mean (SD) age was 53 (12) years, 58% of victims were females, and the average dive profile was to a maximum depth of 19 meters of seawater for 25 minutes. Six victims (19%) had previous episodes of IPE. There were nine recorded fatalities. Cardiac anomalies dominated the associated or possible contributing factors. These included valvular disease in 29%, transient cardiomyopathies in 26% and dysrhythmias in 16%.
Conclusions:
Previously reported associations of IPE such as exertion, stress, cold exposure, negative inspiratory pressure, hypertension, overhydration, ascent or surfacing, tight wetsuit, aspiration and certain medications were identified. Cardiac conditions were frequent and included chronic disorders (valvular pathology, coronary artery disease) and transient disorders (dysrhythmias, transient myocardial dysfunction, takotsubo or stress cardiomyopathy). It is likely that the chronic cardiac disorders may have contributed to the IPE, whereas the transient cases could be either sequelae, contributors or coincidental to the IPE.
