Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Relaxation of Skeletal Muscles01:29

Relaxation of Skeletal Muscles

5.4K
The period of muscle contraction primarily influences the duration of stimulation at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ), the presence of free calcium ions in the sarcoplasm, and the availability of energy or ATP to support contractions.
When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it depolarizes the membrane and opens voltage-gated sodium channels. Sodium ions enter the cell, further depolarizing the presynaptic membrane. This depolarization causes voltage-gated calcium channels to open....
5.4K
Muscle Stimulation Frequency01:22

Muscle Stimulation Frequency

4.2K
The contraction strength of muscles is regulated by motor neurons, which modulate the frequency of action potentials dispatched to the motor units based on the body's requirements. This process of varying the muscle stimulation frequency allows muscles to contract with a force that is precisely tailored to the needs of the moment, whether lifting a feather or a heavy box.
Wave summation
At low firing rates, motor neurons induce individual twitch contractions in muscle fibers. These twitches...
4.2K
Structure and Organization of Smooth Muscles01:13

Structure and Organization of Smooth Muscles

8.3K
Smooth muscle tissue is a type of muscle tissue that can be found lining various vital organs in the human body, including the lungs, blood vessels, digestive tract, and respiratory tract. This type of tissue is responsible for regulating the movements of these organs, playing crucial roles in the functioning of various systems, including the vascular, digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems.
Structure of smooth muscle cell
Smooth muscle cells are spindle-shaped with tapering ends and a...
8.3K
Long-term Potentiation01:25

Long-term Potentiation

3.3K
Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTP is the process of synaptic strengthening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic strengthening of LTP works in opposition to the synaptic weakening of long-term depression (LTD) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
Hebbian LTP
LTP can occur when...
3.3K
Long-term Potentiation01:35

Long-term Potentiation

58.1K
Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTP is the process of synaptic strengthening that occurs over time between pre- and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic strengthening of LTP works in opposition to the synaptic weakening of long-term depression (LTD) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
58.1K
Somatic Spinal Reflexes01:22

Somatic Spinal Reflexes

4.6K
Somatic spinal reflexes are rapid, involuntary muscular responses to external stimuli that involve the somatic musculature and the spinal cord.
One of the most well-known somatic spinal reflexes is the stretch reflex, which is activated by the sudden stretching of a muscle. This reflex involves the activation of specialized sensory receptors called muscle spindles, which are located in the muscle tissue and detect changes in the length and speed of muscle contractions. When a muscle is suddenly...
4.6K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Distinct tasks engage a shared neural subspace in human hippocampus and anterior cingulate cortex.

bioRxiv : the preprint server for biology·2026
Same author

Sex-biased computations underlying differential set shift performance in mice.

Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology·2026
Same author

Accumulation of virtual tokens towards a jackpot reward enhances performance and value encoding in dorsal anterior cingulate cortex.

Nature communications·2026
Same author

Author Correction: Intracranial directed connectivity links subregions of the prefrontal cortex to major depression.

Nature communications·2026
Same author

Rethinking the centrality of brain areas in understanding functional organization.

Nature neuroscience·2025
Same author

Pupil size predicts exploration through critical slowing in prefrontal dynamics.

Communications biology·2025

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 4, 2026

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance
07:19

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Published on: March 19, 2020

6.3K

Tonic exploration governs both flexibility and lapses.

R Becket Ebitz1, Brianna J Sleezer2, Hank P Jedema3

  • 1Department of Neuroscience and Center for Magnetic Resonance Research University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States of America.

Plos Computational Biology
|November 9, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Spontaneous errors, or lapses, may stem from exploratory noise aiding learning. Cocaine reduced lapses and improved task performance by decreasing exploration, suggesting rule state depth regulates cognitive flexibility.

More Related Videos

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats
08:30

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Published on: February 15, 2015

21.5K
Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle
10:41

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle

Published on: December 14, 2011

18.0K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jan 4, 2026

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance
07:19

A Modified Lean and Release Technique to Emphasize Response Inhibition and Action Selection in Reactive Balance

Published on: March 19, 2020

6.3K
Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats
08:30

Operant Procedures for Assessing Behavioral Flexibility in Rats

Published on: February 15, 2015

21.5K
Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle
10:41

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle

Published on: December 14, 2011

18.0K

Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Neuroscience
  • Behavioral Psychology
  • Neuropharmacology

Background:

  • Lapses in cognitive tasks are often attributed to nuisance factors like fatigue or disengagement.
  • An alternative hypothesis suggests lapses may arise from exploratory noise, which facilitates adaptation in dynamic environments.
  • This exploratory noise could be a shared cause with cognitive flexibility, predicting a positive correlation between lapses and flexibility.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the relationship between spontaneous errors (lapses) and cognitive flexibility in rhesus macaques.
  • To explore the role of exploratory noise in cognitive lapses and set-shifting performance.
  • To examine the effects of chronic cocaine exposure on cognitive flexibility, lapses, and exploratory behavior.

Main Methods:

  • Rhesus macaques performed a set-shifting task to assess cognitive flexibility and error patterns.
  • Lapse rates and perseverative error frequencies were analyzed across experimental sessions.
  • The impact of chronic cocaine exposure on task performance, lapses, and perseverative errors was evaluated.

Main Results:

  • Lapse rates were negatively correlated with perseverative error frequency, supporting a common origin in exploration.
  • Cocaine exposure increased perseverative errors but paradoxically improved overall set-shifting performance by reducing lapses.
  • These findings were inconsistent with simple learning failures and were explained by a state-switching model.

Conclusions:

  • Exploratory noise contributes to cognitive lapses, influencing rule-based decision-making.
  • Cocaine appears to impair cognitive flexibility by decreasing exploration, deepening rule state attractors.
  • The depth of rule states may be a critical mechanism for regulating exploration and cognitive flexibility.