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Incomplete Dominance01:43

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Color perception begins in the retina, the light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye. Two main theories explain how colors are seen: the trichromatic theory and the opponent-process theory. The trichromatic theory, proposed by Thomas Young in 1802 and extended by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1852, suggests that color vision is based on three types of cone receptors in the retina. These cones are sensitive to different but overlapping ranges of wavelengths corresponding to red, blue, and green.
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Updated: Jan 4, 2026

Whole-mount Clearing and Staining of Arabidopsis Flower Organs and Siliques
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Colourful cones: how did flower colour first evolve?

Paula J Rudall1

  • 1Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK.

Journal of Experimental Botany
|November 13, 2019
PubMed
Summary

Flower color in angiosperms likely evolved as a secondary trait, initially as a byproduct of pigment accumulation for plant protection, before serving to attract pollinators.

Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary biology
  • Paleobotany
  • Plant reproductive strategies

Background:

  • Biotic pollination in angiosperms relies on colorful flowers to attract pollinators, contrasting with less colorful gymnosperms.
  • Some gymnosperms, like cycads and Gnetales, exhibit insect pollination, attracted by surface fluids.
  • The evolutionary origins of flower color and its role in seed plant reproduction are key research areas.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review evolutionary pathways and cryptic color clues in living and fossil seed plants.
  • To investigate how ancestral angiosperms balanced pollinator attraction with herbivory deterrence.
  • To explore evolutionary inferences from colors observed in extant gymnosperms.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of evolutionary pathways and cryptic clues for flower color.
Keywords:
anthocyanincone scalesconical cellsevolutionflower colourfossil fingerprintspigments

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  • Analysis of trade-offs between pollinator attraction and herbivory minimization.
  • Examination of evolutionary and biological inferences from gymnosperm coloration.

    • Main Results:

    • Red colors in conifer bracts, due to anthocyanins, likely serve a protective function for plant tissues.
    • Flower petal color may have initially evolved as a secondary effect, not for pollinator attraction.
    • The evolution of color as a visual cue likely occurred after bee color vision evolved but before diverse floral pigments accumulated.

    Conclusions:

    • Flower color's initial evolution might be linked to pigment functions beyond pollinator attraction, such as UV protection.
    • The visual signaling role of flower color in angiosperms may have co-opted pre-existing pigmentary pathways.
    • Understanding gymnosperm coloration provides insights into the early evolution of floral traits in seed plants.