Effect of nozzle temperature on the emission rate of ultrafine particles during 3D printing

Ultrafine particles and other hazardous materials are emitted during 3D printing, but the effect of temperature on such particles has not been studied systematically. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of temperature on the emission rate of particulate matter during fused deposition modeling (FDM) three-dimensional (3D) printing using different filament types. The number concentration of particles was measured with direct-reading instruments in an exposure chamber at various temperatures while using four filament materials during 3D printing. The temperature was increased from 185 to 290°C in 15°C increments, while incorporating the manufacturer-recommended operating conditions. The emission rate increased gradually as the temperature increased for all filament types, and temperature was the key factor affecting the emission rate after filament type. For all filaments, at the lowest operating temperature, the emission rate was 10⁷ -10⁹ particles/min, whereas the emission rate at the highest temperature was about 10¹¹ particles/min, that is, 100-10 000 times higher than the emission rate at the lowest temperature. To reduce particle emissions from 3D printing, we recommend printing at the lowest temperature possible or using low-emission materials.