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DNA as a Genetic Template

DNA as a Genetic Template

Two structural features of the DNA molecule provide a basis for the mechanisms of heredity: the four nucleotide bases and its double-stranded nature. The Watson-Crick model of double-helical DNA structure, proposed in 1952, drew heavily upon the X-ray crystallography work of researchers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in 1962. Franklin was, controversially, excluded from the prize for...

DNA as a Genetic Template

DNA as a Genetic Template

Sanger Sequencing

Sanger Sequencing

DNA sequencing is a fundamental technique that is routinely used in the biological sciences. This method can be applied to a range of questions at different scales - from the sequencing of a cloned DNA fragment or the study of a mutation in a gene up to whole-genome sequencing. However, despite the widespread use of sequencing today, it was not until 1977 that Fredrick Sanger and his collaborators developed the chain-termination method to decode DNA sequences. It relies on the separation of a...

Proofreading

Proofreading

Synthesis of new DNA molecules is carried out by the enzyme DNA polymerase, which adds nucleotides on the daughter strand complementary to the template DNA strand. DNA polymerase has a higher affinity to add the correct base and ensures fidelity during DNA replication. Furthermore, it exhibits proofreading activity during replication, using an exonuclease domain that cuts off incorrect nucleotides from the nascent DNA strand.
Errors During Replication are Corrected by the DNA Polymerase...

Proofreading

Proofreading

The DNA Helix

The DNA Helix

Deoxyribonucleic acid, or DNA, is the genetic material responsible for passing traits from generation to generation in all organisms and most viruses. DNA is composed of two strands of nucleotides that wind around each other to form a spring-like structure called a double helix. However, the double helix is not perfectly symmetrical. Instead, there are regularly occurring grooves in the structure. The major groove occurs where the sugar-phosphate backbones are relatively far apart. This space...

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Updated: Jan 2, 2026

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

DNA-Tethered RNA Polymerase for Programmable In vitro Transcription and Molecular Computation

Published on: December 29, 2021

Reading and writing digital data in DNA.

Linda C Meiser¹, Philipp L Antkowiak¹, Julian Koch¹

¹Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.

Nature Protocols

|December 1, 2019

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

This study details a method for storing digital data in DNA, using error-correcting codes to ensure accurate retrieval. The protocol provides step-by-step instructions and software for encoding and decoding information, making DNA data storage reliable.

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Area of Science:

Biotechnology
Bioinformatics
Data Storage

Background:

DNA offers exceptional longevity and information density, making it a potential medium for digital data archiving.
Current methods for DNA data storage face challenges due to errors introduced during synthesis, sequencing, and handling.
Error-free information retrieval is crucial for the practical application of DNA data storage.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide a comprehensive protocol for encoding digital information into DNA sequences.
To detail methods for physically handling, storing, and retrieving DNA-based data.
To enable error-free data recovery through the implementation of error-correcting codes.

Main Methods:

Digital data is translated into DNA sequences using a custom-developed encoding algorithm.
DNA synthesis and sequencing are performed using commercial platforms (Illumina dye sequencing).
Error-correcting codes are applied to protect the encoded information against molecular imperfections.

Main Results:

A robust protocol for DNA data storage and retrieval is presented, suitable for small-scale experiments (100 kB to 15 MB).
Accompanying software automates the encoding and decoding processes, simplifying the workflow.
The protocol demonstrates the feasibility of error-free information storage in DNA.

Conclusions:

The developed protocol offers a reliable method for archiving digital information in DNA.
The approach is adaptable for larger data volumes and future advancements in DNA synthesis and sequencing technologies.
This work serves as a foundational step towards practical and scalable DNA data storage solutions.