Origins of Superlubricity Promoted by Hydrated Multivalent Ions

Strong hydration repulsion exists between two negatively charged surfaces in the alkali metal salt solutions, together with the fluid response to the shear of hydration layers, leading to superlubricity. However, whether the multivalent ions can obtain superlubricity has not been revealed yet. Here, we evaluate the lubrication and adsorption properties of multivalent ions at different concentrations between Si₃N₄ and sapphire surfaces. The divalent and trivalent ions exhibit extremely low friction coefficients of 0.005-0.006 and 0.002-0.004, respectively, under contact pressures above 0.25 GPa, and three trivalent ions can achieve superlubricity at quite low sliding speeds (3.1 mm/s), which is a significant breakthrough for superlubricity under boundary lubrication. Moreover, compared with monovalent ions, divalent ions can reduce surface potential and lower surface charge density even further, and trivalent ions can neutralize the negatively charged ceramic surfaces and even lead to charge inversion due to excess adsorption of the cations, which ensures strong adsorption of hydrated multivalent ions on friction surfaces.