Interaction of particles with mucosae and cell membranes

The fates and detrimental effects of particles entering the body have gained increasingly notable attention worldwide because of the burgeoning applications of various particles and wide existence of ambient particulate matter. Studies on the interaction of particles with biological interfaces demonstrate the potential risks and hazards to the health of living organisms. This review aims to provide a systematic overview of the interaction between particles and typical biological interfaces, with an emphasis on the effects of particle properties and microenvironment, and the potential adverse results arising from these interactions. First, we describe the major entry routes of particles into the human body to understand the main exposure pathways and the fates and impacts of particles. Different behaviors of particles interacting with mucosae and cell membranes are then reviewed. Finally, the knowledge gaps are identified and the long-term development of interaction research is proposed.