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Related Concept Videos

General Structure of a Vertebra01:30

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A typical vertebra, with the exception of the sacrum and coccyx, consists of a body, a vertebral arch, and seven different projections termed processes. The anterior portion of the vertebrae, the body, supports about half the body’s weight. The vertebral bodies progressively increase in size and thickness from the cervical region to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. The intervertebral discs present between the bodies of adjacent vertebrae firmly unites them, forming a continuous...
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In addition to being held together by the intervertebral discs, adjacent vertebrae also articulate with each other at synovial joints formed between the superior and inferior articular processes called zygapophysial joints (facet joints). These are plane joints that provide for only limited motions between the vertebrae. The orientation of the articular processes at these joints varies in different regions of the vertebral column and serves to determine the types of motions available in each...
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Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

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The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form...
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Spinal Cord: Cross-sectional Anatomy01:16

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The cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord offers a detailed view of its complex structure and function within the central nervous system. At the core of the spinal cord lies the gray matter, characterized by its butterfly or "H"-shaped appearance in cross-section. This central region is enveloped by white matter, with the overall structure divided into symmetrical halves by the dorsal median sulcus and the ventral median fissure.
Gray Matter and its Components
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Spinal Cord: Gross Anatomy01:15

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The spinal cord resides within the protective confines of the vertebral column. It is the main pathway for information traveling between the brain and the body. It plays a fundamental role in nearly all bodily functions, from simple reflexes to complex motor movements. The spinal cord begins at the medulla oblongata at the base of the brainstem and extends downward, terminating at the conus medullaris near the first and second lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord's length in adults is...
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Spinal Nerves: Anatomy01:23

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Spinal nerves are pivotal conduits in the nervous system, bridging the central nervous system (CNS) with the peripheral nervous system (PNS). These nerves enable a complex communication network between the brain, spinal cord, and the rest of the body, facilitating sensory input, motor output, and autonomic functions.
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Updated: Jan 1, 2026

Author Spotlight: Enhancing Success of Ultrasound-Guided Neuraxial Anesthesia in Cases with Difficult Anatomy
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Too hip for two sacral vertebrae.

Michelle R Stocker1

  • 1Department of Geosciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, United States.

Elife
|December 20, 2019
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Fossil discoveries reveal a complex pelvic structure in a giant ancient crocodylian. This finding offers new insights into the biomechanics and evolution of these large reptiles.

Keywords:
CrocodyliaHoxMioceneevo-devoevolutionary biologygigantismvariation

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Area of Science:

  • Paleontology
  • Vertebrate Zoology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Crocodylians represent a diverse group of semi-aquatic reptiles with a long evolutionary history.
  • Understanding their anatomical adaptations is crucial for reconstructing their paleoecology and evolutionary relationships.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To describe and analyze the unique pelvic morphology of a newly discovered, exceptionally large crocodylian fossil.
  • To infer functional and evolutionary implications of this complex pelvic structure.

Main Methods:

  • Detailed morphological analysis of fossilized pelvic elements.
  • Comparative anatomical study with extant and extinct crocodylians.
  • Biomechanical modeling to assess potential function.

Main Results:

  • The fossil exhibits an unusually complex pelvic structure, differing significantly from modern crocodylians.
  • Specific features suggest adaptations for enhanced locomotion or support in a large-bodied animal.
  • The morphology provides evidence for novel evolutionary pathways in crocodylian pelvic anatomy.

Conclusions:

  • The complex pelvic morphology represents a significant evolutionary innovation within crocodylians.
  • This discovery expands our understanding of the diversity of pelvic structures and their functional roles in extinct megafauna.
  • Further research is warranted to explore the phylogenetic implications and biomechanical capabilities associated with this morphology.