Positional information and tissue scaling during development and regeneration

In order to contribute to the appropriate tissues during development, cells need to know their position within the embryo. This positional information is conveyed by gradients of signaling molecules, termed morphogens, that are produced in specific regions of the embryo and induce concentration-dependent responses in target tissues. Positional information is remarkably robust, and embryos often develop with the correct proportions even if large parts of the embryo are removed. In this Review, we discuss classical embryological experiments and modern quantitative analyses that have led to mechanistic insights into how morphogen gradients adapt, scale and properly pattern differently sized domains. We analyze these experimental findings in the context of mathematical models and synthesize general principles that apply to multiple systems across species and developmental stages.