Calcium homeostasis during hibernation and in mechanical environments disrupting calcium homeostasis

To maintain calcium homeostasis during physical inactivity, precise coordination is necessary between different organs of the body. There are a number of factors which alter an organism's calcium balance, such as growth, aging, physical inactivity and acquired or inherited disorders which ultimately lead to bone loss. In non-hibernating mammals, physical inactivity causes bone loss which may not be completely recoverable during the lifespan of an individual despite a resumption of activity. Extreme physical inactivity and nutritional deprivation are two other important factors that lead to bone loss in non-hibernating mammals. The mechanism of bone loss is still poorly understood, however, there is some evidence which shows that during hibernation, smaller mammals (ground squirrels, bats, and hamsters) undergo bone loss. While on the other hand, hibernating bears do not show any sign of bone loss and retain their bone structure and strength. This may be due to differences in their hibernation patterns, as smaller mammals may excrete calcium throughout the hibernation period, which ultimately leads to bone loss, whereas bears seem to have a more developed and advanced mechanism to prevent calcium loss and maintain their bone structure. In this review, we summarize calcium homeostasis and its adaptive mechanisms with reference to bone loss in hibernating as compared to non-hibernating mammals. We also review the effect of microgravity and simulated microgravity on bone physiology and subsequent adaptation.