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Teeth

Teeth

The formation of teeth, also known as odontogenesis, is a complex process that begins in utero, around the sixth week of embryonic development. There are three stages to this process: the bud stage, the cap stage, and the bell stage.
In the bud stage, the tooth germ (an aggregation of cells) starts to form in the developing jawbone. During the cap stage, the tooth germ differentiates into enamel organ, dental papilla, and dental sac, which will later develop into the tooth's enamel, dentin...

Tooth Anatomy

Tooth Anatomy

The human tooth enables us to eat a variety of foods, speak clearly, and even aid in shaping our faces. Teeth are composed of various elements that work together. Here's a detailed look at the anatomy of a human tooth.
The Crown, Neck, and Root
The visible part of the tooth is referred to as the crown. It's covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the human body. The crown is uniquely shaped for each type of tooth, allowing for different functions such as cutting, tearing, or...

The Hyoid Bone

The Hyoid Bone

The hyoid bone is a small U-shaped bone located in the upper neck at the level of the inferior mandible, with its tips pointing posteriorly. It does not directly articulate with any other bone in the body. The hyoid acts as the attachment site for the tongue, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is held in position by a series of small muscles attached from above or below. These muscles help to move the hyoid up/down or forward/back in coordination with movements of the tongue, larynx, and pharynx...

The Auditory Ossicles

The Auditory Ossicles

The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of two malleus (hammer) bones, two incus (anvil) bones, and two stapes (stirrups), one on each side. These bones develop during the fetal stage and are the ones to ossify first. They are fully mature at birth and do not grow afterward.
The aptly named stapes look very much like a stirrup. The three ossicles are unique to mammals, and each plays a role in...

Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification

Bone Formation by Intramembranous Ossification

Intramembranous ossification is one of the two processes involved in the development of bones within an embryo. The flat bones of the face, most of the cranial bones, and the clavicles are formed via this process. During intramembranous ossification, the bones develop directly from sheets of undifferentiated mesenchymal connective tissue.
The process begins when mesenchymal cells in the embryonic skeleton gather together and differentiate into osteogenic cells, which then develop into ...

Bone Formation by Endochondral Ossification

Bone Formation by Endochondral Ossification

Bone formation, or ossification, begins around the sixth to seventh week of embryonic development. Most bones develop from a cartilaginous template through the process of endochondral ossification. Cartilage formation begins when clusters of mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. These chondrocytes proliferate rapidly and secrete an extracellular matrix that becomes encased in a membrane called the perichondrium. The resulting cartilage model provides a template that resembles the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 30, 2025

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology

Published on: August 22, 2022

Os Odontoideum in Children.

Daniel J Hedequist¹, Andrew Z Mo

¹From the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Boston Children's Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA (Dr. Hedequist), and the Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Lenox Hill Hospital, New York, NY (Dr. Mo).

The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons

|January 25, 2020

Summary

Os odontoideum, a rare C2 vertebra condition, involves a distinct ossicle. Diagnosis and management depend on symptoms and spinal stability, ranging from observation to surgical fusion.

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Area of Science:

Orthopedics
Radiology
Neurology

Background:

Os odontoideum is a rare condition affecting the second cervical vertebra (C2).
It is characterized by a distinct, corticated ossicle separate from the C2 vertebral body.
This entity must be differentiated from odontoid fractures and persistent ossiculum terminale.

Purpose of the Study:

To summarize the diagnostic imaging, etiology, clinical presentation, and management of os odontoideum.
To highlight the importance of assessing spinal cord integrity and atlantoaxial instability.

Main Methods:

Diagnosis is typically made using plain radiographs.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Computed Tomography (CT) are employed to evaluate spinal cord integrity and C1-C2 instability.
Etiology is investigated through comparative studies supporting congenital or traumatic origins.

Main Results:

Os odontoideum can be incidentally discovered during imaging for neck pain or neurological symptoms.
Clinical presentations vary widely, from mild pain to myelopathy or vertebrobasilar ischemia.
Radiographic assessment is crucial for determining the presence of atlantoaxial instability.

Conclusions:

Asymptomatic cases without instability are managed with observation and serial imaging.
Surgical intervention with fusion is indicated for cases demonstrating atlantoaxial instability or neurological deficits.
Understanding the varied clinical spectrum and diagnostic modalities is key for effective patient management.