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Related Concept Videos

Alkylation of β-Diester Enolates: Malonic Ester Synthesis01:14

Alkylation of β-Diester Enolates: Malonic Ester Synthesis

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Malonic ester synthesis is a method to obtain α substituted carboxylic acids from ꞵ-diesters such as diethyl malonate and alkyl halides.
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Alkylation of β-Ketoester Enolates: Acetoacetic Ester Synthesis01:07

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Acetoacetic ester synthesis is a method to obtain ketones from alkyl halides and β-keto esters. The reaction occurs in the presence of an alkoxide base that abstracts the acidic proton of the β-keto esters. The step results in an enolate ion which is doubly stabilized. The enolate then reacts with an alkyl halide via the SN2 process to produce an alkylated ester intermediate with a new C–C bond. The hydrolysis of the intermediate, followed by acidification, results in an...
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Loss of Carboxy Group as CO2: Decarboxylation of Malonic Acid Derivatives01:35

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Just like β-keto acids—which upon thermal decarboxylation form ketones—β-dicarboxylic acids undergo decarboxylation to generate monocarboxylic acids with the liberation of carbon dioxide.
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α-Hydroxy Ketones via Reductive Coupling of Esters: Acyloin Condensation Overview01:19

α-Hydroxy Ketones via Reductive Coupling of Esters: Acyloin Condensation Overview

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The pinacol and McMurry reactions involve the reductive coupling of ketones or aldehydes. Similarly, the bimolecular reductive coupling of two ester molecules in the presence of sodium metal in an aprotic solvent yields an α-hydroxy ketone product. The α-hydroxy ketone is also called acyloin, so the reaction is referred to as ‘acyloin condensation.’
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β-Dicarbonyl Compounds via Crossed Claisen Condensations01:18

β-Dicarbonyl Compounds via Crossed Claisen Condensations

3.7K
Crossed Claisen condensations are base-promoted reactions between two different ester molecules producing β-dicarbonyl compounds.  The reaction involving esters, with both containing α hydrogen, results in a mixture of four different products that are difficult to isolate. This reduces the synthetic utility of the reaction.
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Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkenes03:08

Hydroboration-Oxidation of Alkenes

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In addition to the oxymercuration–demercuration method, which converts the alkenes to alcohols with Markovnikov orientation, a complementary hydroboration-oxidation method yields the anti-Markovnikov product. The hydroboration reaction, discovered in 1959 by H.C. Brown, involves the addition of a B–H bond of borane to an alkene giving an organoborane intermediate. The oxidation of this intermediate with basic hydrogen peroxide forms an alcohol.
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Updated: Dec 27, 2025

Enzymatic Synthesis of Epoxidized Metabolites of Docosahexaenoic, Eicosapentaenoic, and Arachidonic Acids
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Why a d-β-hydroxybutyrate monoester?

Adrian Soto-Mota1, Nicholas G Norwitz1, Kieran Clarke1

  • 1Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, U.K.

Biochemical Society Transactions
|February 26, 2020
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

d-β-hydroxybutyrate (βHB) monoester offers a new way to manage chronic diseases like diabetes and Alzheimer's by raising ketone levels. This review explores its potential in various conditions, highlighting its benefits and limitations.

Keywords:
Ketone monoesterketone bodiesketosis

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Area of Science:

  • Metabolic biochemistry
  • Nutritional science
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Chronic diseases like diabetes and Alzheimer's are linked to metabolic dysfunction.
  • d-β-hydroxybutyrate (βHB), a natural ketone body, can serve as fuel and signaling molecule.
  • Traditional methods to increase βHB have drawbacks.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the metabolism of endogenous and exogenous ketone bodies.
  • To compare βHB monoester with other exogenous ketones.
  • To summarize the rationale for using βHB monoester in various diseases.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of endogenous and exogenous ketone metabolism.
  • Analysis of pharmacokinetic and safety data for βHB monoester.
  • Synthesis of disease-specific rationales for clinical applications.

Main Results:

  • βHB monoester provides a novel method to elevate blood ketone concentrations.
  • Pharmacokinetics and safety in humans have been established.
  • Potential applications span diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, heart failure, and more.

Conclusions:

  • βHB monoester presents a promising adjunctive nutritional therapy for metabolic and chronic diseases.
  • Further research is needed to address limitations and uncertainties.
  • The review provides a foundation for future clinical investigations.