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Mitochondria

Mitochondria

Mitochondria are eukaryotic cellular organelles that are known to produce energy through a process called oxidative phosphorylation. Besides their primary function, mitochondria are involved in various cellular processes, including cell growth, differentiation, signaling, metabolism, and senescence. Age-related changes cause a decline in mitochondrial quality and integrity due to increased mitochondrial mutations and oxidative damage. Thus, aging can severely impact mitochondrial functions,...

Translocation of Proteins into the Mitochondria

Translocation of Proteins into the Mitochondria

Mitochondrial precursors are translocated to the internal subcompartments via independent mechanisms involving distinct protein machineries called translocases.
Sorting of outer membrane proteins:
Mitochondrial outer membrane proteins are of two types: the transmembrane, beta-barrel porins, and the membrane-anchored, alpha-helical proteins. Beta-barrel porin precursors are translocated by the TOM complex and inserted into the outer mitochondrial membrane by the SAM complex. In contrast,...

Mitochondrial Membranes

Mitochondrial Membranes

A single mitochondrion is a bean-shaped organelle enclosed by a double-membrane system. The outer membrane of mitochondria is smooth and contains many porins - the integral membrane transporters. Porins enable free diffusion of ions and small uncharged molecules through the outer mitochondrial membrane but limit the transport of molecules larger than 5000 Daltons. Further, the outer mitochondrial membrane forms a unique structure called membrane contact sites with other subcellular organelles,...

The Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

The Inner Mitochondrial Membrane

The inner mitochondrial membrane is the primary site of ATP synthesis. The inner membrane domain that forms a smooth layer adjacent to the outer membrane is called the inner boundary membrane. This domain contains membrane transporters that drive metabolites in and out of the mitochondria. In contrast, the inner membrane network that invaginates into the matrix space is called the cristae membrane. This domain accounts for principle mitochondrial function as it accommodates the protein...

Electron Transport Chain: Complex I and II

Electron Transport Chain: Complex I and II

The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is the main energy generation system in the eukaryotic cells. However, mitochondria also produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to the large electron flow during oxidative phosphorylation. While Complex I is one of the primary sources of superoxide radicals, ROS production by Complex II is uncommon and may only be observed in cancer cells with mutated complexes.
ROS generation is regulated and maintained at moderate levels necessary...

Animal Mitochondrial Genetics

Animal Mitochondrial Genetics

Among all the organelles in an animal cell, only mitochondria have their own independent genomes. Animal mitochondrial DNA is a double-stranded, closed-circular molecule with around 20,000 base pairs. Mitochondrial DNA is unique in that one of its two strands, the heavy, or H, -strand is guanine rich, whereas the complementary strand is cytosine rich and called the light, or L, -strand. Compared to nuclear DNA, mitochondrial DNA has a very low percentage of non-coding regions and is marked by...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 25, 2025

Real-Time Measurement of the Mitochondrial Bioenergetic Profile of Neutrophils

Published on: June 2, 2023

Mitochondrial Functions in Infection and Immunity.

Varnesh Tiku¹, Man-Wah Tan¹, Ivan Dikic²

¹Department of Infectious Diseases, Genentech Inc, South San Francisco, USA.

Trends in Cell Biology

|March 24, 2020

Summary

Pathogens manipulate host mitochondria for survival, impacting cell metabolism and immunity. This review explores how bacteria and viruses alter mitochondria, affecting disease and host defense mechanisms.

Keywords:

bacteria cell death innate immunity mitochondrial metabolism mitochondrial morphology viruses

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Last Updated: Dec 25, 2025

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Measuring Mitochondrial Function of Naïve and Effector CD8 T Cells

Measuring Mitochondrial Function of Naïve and Effector CD8 T Cells

Published on: March 28, 2025

Area of Science:

Cellular Biology
Immunology
Microbiology

Background:

Mitochondria regulate cellular activities and host responses to bacterial infection.
Pathogens exploit mitochondrial dynamics and functions for intracellular survival and immune evasion.
Host immune responses heavily rely on mitochondrial functions for maintaining homeostasis during infection.

Purpose of the Study:

To review how various bacteria and viruses impact host mitochondria.
To examine the morphological and functional changes induced by pathogens in mitochondria.
To understand the influence of these mitochondrial alterations on microbial pathogenesis, host cell metabolism, and immune responses.

Main Methods:

Literature review of studies on pathogen-mitochondria interactions.
Analysis of research detailing pathogen-induced changes in mitochondrial morphology and function.
Synthesis of findings on the consequences of mitochondrial manipulation for pathogenesis and host immunity.

Main Results:

Pathogens significantly alter mitochondrial dynamics, including fission, fusion, and membrane potential.
Mitochondrial dysfunction induced by pathogens affects cellular metabolism, ATP production, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation.
Pathogen manipulation of mitochondria influences key host immune signaling pathways, such as inflammasome activation and apoptosis.

Conclusions:

Mitochondria are critical hubs for host-pathogen interactions, influencing both microbial success and host defense.
Understanding pathogen-driven mitochondrial alterations provides insights into disease mechanisms and potential therapeutic targets.
Targeting mitochondrial pathways could offer novel strategies to combat infectious diseases.