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Updated: Dec 20, 2025

Anatomical Reconstructions of the Human Cardiac Venous System using Contrast-computed Tomography of Perfusion-fixed Specimens
Published on: April 18, 2013
Nonrenal Complications of Contrast Media
Daniel Krause1, Damien Marycz2, Khaled M Ziada1
1Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Gill Heart & Vascular Institute, University of Kentucky, 900 South Limestone Street, 326 Wethington Building, Lexington, KY 40536-0200, USA.
Abstract:
Injection of contrast media is the foundation of invasive and interventional cardiovascular practice. Iodine-based contrast was first used in the 1920s for urologic procedures and examinations. The initially used agents had high ionic and osmolar concentrations, which led to significant side effects, namely nausea, vomiting, and hypotension. Newer contrast agents had lower ionic concentrations and lower osmolarity. Modifications to the ionic structure and iodine content led to the development of ionic low-osmolar, nonionic low-osmolar, and nonionic iso-osmolar contrast media. Contemporary contrast agents are better tolerated and produce fewer major side effects.
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