Heterostemma cucphuongense (Apocynaceae, Asclepiadoideae), a new species from Vietnam

Plants often form mutualistic relationships with soil-dwelling fungi or bacteria to enhance their roots’ nutrient uptake ability. Root-colonizing fungi (e.g., mycorrhizae) increase a plant’s root surface area, which promotes nutrient absorption. While root-colonizing, nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., rhizobia) convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), making nitrogen available to plants for various biological functions. For example, nitrogen is essential for the...

Seedless Vascular Plants Were the First Tall Plants on Earth

Asexual reproduction allows plants to reproduce without growing flowers, attracting pollinators, or dispersing seeds. Offspring are genetically identical to the parent and produced without the fusion of male and female gametes.

Phylum Ascomycota, a major division within the subkingdom Dikarya, comprises a diverse range of fungal species, including both unicellular yeasts and filamentous molds such as Aspergillus and Penicillium. These fungi thrive in a variety of habitats, from aquatic ecosystems to terrestrial environments, playing crucial ecological and economic roles.Morphology and ReproductionThe defining characteristic of Ascomycetes, commonly referred to as sac fungi, is the ascus—a sac-like structure that...

Most plants are seed plants—characterized by seeds, pollen, and reduced gametophytes. Seed plants include gymnosperms and angiosperms.

The diverse plant life on Earth—consisting of nearly 400,000 species—can be divided into three broad categories based on biological characteristics: nonvascular, seedless vascular, and seed plants.