Contextual complexity of chemical signals in callitrichids

In nearly four decades our research and that of others on chemical signaling in callitrichid primates suggest a high degree of contextual complexity in both the use of signals and the response to these signals. We describe our research including observational field studies, behavioral bioassays ("playbacks"), functional imaging, and conditioning studies. Scent marking in both captivity and the wild is used for more than just territorial marking. Social contextual effects are seen in responses by subordinate females responding with ovulatory inhibition only to chemical signals from familiar dominant reproductive females. Males detect ovulation through changes in scent marks. Males responded behaviorally and hormonally to chemical signals of novel ovulating females as a function of their reproductive status (fathers, males paired with a female but not fathers, and single males). Multiple brain areas are activated in males by female chemical signals of ovulation including areas relating to memory, evaluation, and motivation. Furthermore, males can be conditioned to respond sexually to a nonsexual odor demonstrating that learning plays an important role in response to chemical signals. Male androgen and estrone levels changed significantly in response to infant chemical signals as a function of whether the males were fathers or not, whether the odors were from their own versus other infants, as well as the infant's stage of development. Chemical signals in callitrichids are providing a rich source of understanding the context and function of the chemical sensory system and its stimulation of neural, behavioral, and hormonal actions in the recipients.