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Positioning the cell division plane is a critical step during development and cell differentiation, particularly during mitosis when the plane is essential for determining the size of the two daughter cells. The cell division plane is perpendicular to the plane of chromosome segregation, but different types of organisms have different cell division mechanisms to suit their morphology and function. 
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The mitotic spindle—or spindle apparatus—is a eukaryotic, cytoskeletal structure made up of long protein fibers called microtubules. Formed during cell division, the spindle separates sister chromatids and moves them to opposite ends of a parental cell, where the now individual chromosomes are distributed to two daughter cell nuclei.
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Meiosis II entails cell division and segregation of the sister chromatids, resulting in the production of four unique haploid gametes. The steps for meiosis II are similar to mitosis, except that meiosis II occurs in haploid cells, whereas mitosis occurs in diploid cells.
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Epigenetics is the study of inherited changes in a cell's phenotype without changing the DNA sequences. It provides a form of memory for the differential gene expression pattern to maintain cell lineage, position-effect variegation, dosage compensation, and maintenance of chromatin structures such as telomeres and centromeres. For example, the structure and location of the centromere on chromosomes are epigenetically inherited. Its functionality is not dictated or ensured by the underlying...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 9, 2025

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IRX3/5 regulate mitotic chromatid segregation and limb bud shape.

Hirotaka Tao1, Jean-Philippe Lambert2, Theodora M Yung1

  • 1Program in Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Research Institute, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON M5G 1X8, Canada.

Development (Cambridge, England)
|September 10, 2020
PubMed
Summary

IRX3/5 proteins are essential for limb bud development, influencing both cell division and pattern formation. These factors coordinate early morphogenesis with skeletal patterning through novel cell division roles.

Keywords:
CohesinIroquoisLimb developmentMesodermal cell intercalationsMitotic chromatid segregationMorphogenesis

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Light-mediated Reversible Modulation of the Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase Pathway during Cell Differentiation and Xenopus Embryonic Development
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Area of Science:

  • Developmental Biology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Pattern formation in developing organs involves transcriptional regulation and morphogenetic mechanisms.
  • The interplay between transcriptional regulation and morphogenetic processes, particularly in limb bud development, is not fully understood.
  • Factors linking transcriptional control and physical shaping of organ primordia are under-appreciated.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the role of IRX3/5 in limb bud development beyond their known transcriptional functions.
  • To elucidate the mechanisms by which IRX3/5 influence cell behavior during early organogenesis.
  • To understand how IRX3/5 coordinate pattern formation with morphogenesis.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of IRX3/5 function in limb bud development.
  • Investigation of cell cycle progression and mitosis in the presence/absence of IRX3/5.
  • Biochemical assays to identify interacting proteins and functional partners of IRX3/5.
  • Co-immunoprecipitation and abundance assays for IRX3/5 and cell division regulators.

Main Results:

  • IRX3/5 promote the separation and intercalation of dividing mesodermal cells in the limb bud primordium.
  • IRX3/5 are unexpectedly required for proper cell cycle progression and chromatid segregation during mitosis.
  • These functions of IRX3/5 may operate in a non-transcriptional manner.
  • IRX3/5 physically associate with and stabilize key cell division regulators, including cohesin subunits (SMC1, SMC3), NIPBL, and CUX1.

Conclusions:

  • IRX3/5 play a dual role in limb bud development, impacting both transcriptional pattern formation and physical morphogenesis.
  • IRX3/5 are critical for cell division processes, including mitosis and chromatid segregation, potentially via non-transcriptional mechanisms.
  • The study reveals a novel link between IRX3/5, cell division machinery, and the coordination of limb bud morphogenesis with skeletal pattern formation.