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Structures of Aldehydes and Ketones

Structures of Aldehydes and Ketones

Vanillin—a flavoring agent in vanilla, cinnamaldehyde—a molecule responsible for the distinct smell of cinnamon, and acetone—a strong-smelling ingredient in nail polish removers, all belong to a class of carbonyl compounds called aldehydes and ketones (Figure 1). Although both aldehydes and ketones contain the characteristic carbonyl (C=O) bond, their chemical structures vary with respect to the groups directly attached to the carbonyl carbon.
In aldehydes (Figures 1a and 1b), the...

Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Amides and Nitriles

Nomenclature of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Amides and Nitriles

Naming Amides
The IUPAC and common names of amides are derived from the parent carboxylic acid, by replacing the suffix “oic acid” and “ic acid,” respectively, with “amide.” In the following example, the IUPAC name ethanamide is derived from ethanoic acid, and the common name, acetamide, is obtained from acetic acid.

Crown Ethers

Crown Ethers

Crown ethers are cyclic polyethers that contain multiple oxygen atoms, usually arranged in a regular pattern. The first crown ether was synthesized by Charles Pederson while working at DuPont in 1967. For this work, Pedersen was co-awarded the 1987 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Crown ethers are named using the formula x-crown-y, where x is the total number of atoms in the ring and y is the number of ether oxygen atoms. The term 'crown' refers to the crown-like shape that these ether molecules...

IUPAC Nomenclature of Ketones

IUPAC Nomenclature of Ketones

Like aldehydes, ketones are named using IUPAC rules; in this case, by replacing “e” in the name of the longest hydrocarbon chain with “one.” In acyclic ketones, the ketonic carbon is given the lowest locant value. For instance, as shown below, a simple five-carbon ketone is named pentan-2-one, instead of pentan-4-one. IUPAC rules also allow the placing of the locant value before the parent name to give an alternate name, 2-pentanone.

Acidity and Basicity of Alcohols and Phenols

Acidity and Basicity of Alcohols and Phenols

Like water, alcohols are weak acids and bases. This is attributed to the polarization of the O–H bond making the hydrogen partially positive. Moreover, the electron pairs on the oxygen atom of alcohol make it both basic and nucleophilic. Protonation of an alcohol converts hydroxide, a poor leaving group, into water—a good one. The two acid–base equilibria corresponding to ethanol are depicted below.

Structures of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Structures of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Structure of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
Carboxylic acid derivatives contain an acyl group attached to a heteroatom such as chlorine, oxygen, or nitrogen. The carbonyl carbon and oxygen are both sp2-hybridized with an unhybridized p orbital.
The three sp2 orbitals of the carbonyl carbon form three σ bonds, one each with the carbonyl oxygen, the α carbon, and the heteroatom, whereas the other two sp2 orbitals of the carbonyl oxygen are occupied by the lone pairs. Further, the unhybridized p...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 9, 2025

Quantitative 31P NMR Analysis of Lignins and Tannins

Quantitative 31P NMR Analysis of Lignins and Tannins

Published on: August 2, 2021

Xylitol pentanitrate - Its characterization and analysis.

Kelly-Anne S Stark¹, Jason R Gascooke¹, Christopher T Gibson²

¹College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Sturt Road, Bedford Park, South Australia, 5042, Australia.

Forensic Science International

|September 12, 2020

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Xylitol pentanitrate (XPN), an explosive, can be detected using new analytical data. This study provides crucial infrared, Raman, NMR, chromatography, and mass spectrometry data for forensic and first response identification.

Keywords:

Analysis Explosives Gas chromatography Infrared Liquid chromatography Mass spectrometry NMR Nitrate esters Raman Xylitolpentanitrate

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Preparation of N-2-alkoxyvinylsulfonamides from N-tosyl-1,2,3-triazoles and Subsequent Conversion to Substituted Phthalans and Phenethylamines

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Published on: January 3, 2018

Area of Science:

Forensic Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry
Explosives Detection

Background:

Xylitol can be nitrated to form xylitol pentanitrate (XPN), a potential explosive.
Forensic and first responders may encounter XPN in various forms.
Limited analytical data exists for XPN, hindering its detection.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide essential analytical data for xylitol pentanitrate (XPN).
To address the knowledge gap in XPN detection methods.
To support forensic and first response operations.

Main Methods:

Infrared (IR) spectrometry
Raman spectrometry
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectrometry
Chromatography
Mass spectrometry (MS)

Main Results:

Comprehensive spectral data (IR, Raman, NMR) for XPN.
Chromatographic and mass spectrometry data for XPN identification.
Established a baseline for XPN characterization.

Conclusions:

The provided analytical data fills a critical gap for XPN detection.
This data will aid forensic and first response personnel in identifying XPN.
Enables more reliable identification of XPN in post-blast residues or bulk material.