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Related Concept Videos

Overview of the Axial Skeleton01:09

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The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body. It includes all of the bones of the head, neck, chest, and back. It protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.
The axial skeleton of the...
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Skeletal muscles, the key players in our body's movement, can be classified into two groups based on their location and function: axial muscles and appendicular muscles. These classifications reflect the primary roles the muscles play in the body's structure and movement.
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The lateral view of the cranium is dominated by temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
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The superior view of the cranium shows the frontal and paired parietal bones.
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External Anatomy of the Kidney01:21

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The kidneys are a pair of bean-shaped organs in the human body that play a critical role in maintaining overall health. They filter out waste products from the blood, regulate blood pressure, maintain electrolyte balance, and stimulate the production of red blood cells.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Dec 9, 2025

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Delineating the anuran axial skeleton.

Sara S Sánchez1, Romel S Sánchez

  • 1Instituto Superior de Investigaciones Biológicas (INSIBIO), CONICET-UNT, and Instituto de Biología "Dr. Francisco D. Barbieri", Facultad de Bioquímica, Química y Farmacia, Universidad Nacional de Tucumán, San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina. ssanchez@fbqf.unt.edu.ar.

The International Journal of Developmental Biology
|September 15, 2020
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Anuran axial skeletons show evolutionary bone reduction, linked to jumping. Gene expression changes in Hox, Pax1, Pax9, and Uncx4.1 may explain the loss of caudal vertebrae in frogs.

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Area of Science:

  • Developmental Biology
  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Comparative Anatomy

Background:

  • Anurans exhibit a highly conserved axial skeleton with reduced bone elements, adapted for saltatorial locomotion.
  • The developmental pathways and molecular underpinnings of anuran vertebral morphogenesis, particularly the loss of caudal elements, remain largely uncharacterized compared to other tetrapods.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the ontogeny of the anuran spinal column.
  • To explore the genetic mechanisms potentially responsible for the unique anuran body plan and its evolutionary maintenance.
  • To investigate the molecular basis for the absence of caudal osseous elements in anurans.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on anuran vertebral development and evolution.
  • Hypothesizing the roles of specific gene families (Hox, Pax1, Pax9, Uncx4.1) in vertebral patterning.
  • Analysis of gene expression patterns along the anteroposterior axis during development.

Main Results:

  • The inability of sclerotomes to form cartilaginous condensations is proposed as the cause of absent caudal elements.
  • Changes in the expression patterns and levels of Hox, Pax1, Pax9, and Uncx4.1 genes are implicated.
  • Anteriorized Hox gene expression and reduced expression of Pax1, Pax9, and Uncx4.1 in posterior somites are suggested as key factors.

Conclusions:

  • Altered expression of key developmental genes (Hox, Pax1, Pax9, Uncx4.1) likely explains the evolutionary loss of caudal vertebrae in anurans.
  • These genetic modifications contribute to the specialized anuran body plan and its evolutionary stability.
  • Understanding these genetic mechanisms provides insight into tetrapod skeletal evolution.