Implication of Gut Microbiota in Cardiovascular Diseases

Emerging evidence has identified the association between gut microbiota and various diseases, including cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Altered intestinal flora composition has been described in detail in CVDs, such as hypertension, atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, heart failure, and arrhythmia. In contrast, the importance of fermentation metabolites, such as trimethylamine N-oxide (TMAO), short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), and secondary bile acid (BA), has also been implicated in CVD development, prevention, treatment, and prognosis. The potential mechanisms are conventionally thought to involve immune regulation, host energy metabolism, and oxidative stress. However, numerous types of programmed cell death, including apoptosis, autophagy, pyroptosis, ferroptosis, and clockophagy, also serve as a key link in microbiome-host cross talk. In this review, we introduced and summarized the results from recent studies dealing with the relationship between gut microbiota and cardiac disorders, highlighting the role of programmed cell death. We hope to shed light on microbiota-targeted therapeutic strategies in CVD management.