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Free Jet01:14

Free Jet

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Free jets describe the flow of liquid exiting a reservoir through an opening into the atmosphere without resistance. The velocity (v) of the liquid jet is derived using Bernoulli's principle and expressed as:
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 30, 2025

Glass-Based Devices to Generate Drops and Emulsions
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Droplet Ejection at Controlled Angles via Acoustofluidic Jetting.

William Connacher1, Jeremy Orosco1, James Friend1

  • 1Medically Advanced Devices Laboratory, in the Center for Medical Devices Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Jacobs School of Engineering, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA.

Physical Review Letters
|November 16, 2020
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study reveals that liquid droplet ejection angles are not limited by the Rayleigh angle, as previously thought. Our model and experiments demonstrate significantly larger ejection angles are achievable, challenging prior assumptions.

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Area of Science:

  • Fluid dynamics
  • Acoustic manipulation
  • Microdroplet technology

Background:

  • Nozzle-free droplet ejection is crucial for microfluidics and printing.
  • Previous models assumed ejection angles were limited by the Rayleigh angle.
  • The role of surface tension in acoustic streaming-actuated ejection was underestimated.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a quantitative model for nozzle-free droplet ejection.
  • To investigate the influence of surface tension and acoustic streaming on ejection angles.
  • To challenge the established Rayleigh angle limitation for droplet ejection.

Main Methods:

  • Developed a quantitative model incorporating surface tension and acoustic streaming.
  • Conducted experiments with various liquids and acoustic parameters.
  • Analyzed droplet ejection angles and compared them to theoretical predictions.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated droplet ejection angles exceeding double the predicted Rayleigh angle.
  • The model accurately explains the impact of fluid properties and input parameters.
  • Introduced a dimensionless number analogous to the Weber number for droplet events.

Conclusions:

  • The Rayleigh angle is not a universal limit for nozzle-free droplet ejection.
  • Surface tension plays a significant role, enabling larger ejection angles.
  • The developed model provides a framework for predicting and controlling droplet ejection.