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The sense of smell is achieved through the activities of the olfactory system. It starts when an airborne odorant enters the nasal cavity and reaches olfactory epithelium (OE). The OE is protected by a thin layer of mucus, which also serves the purpose of dissolving more complex compounds into simpler chemical odorants. The size of the OE and the density of sensory neurons varies among species; in humans, the OE is only about 9-10 cm2.
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The process of olfaction, also known as the sense of smell, is a sophisticated chemical response system. The specialized sensory neurons that facilitate this process, known as olfactory receptor neurons, are situated in an upper segment of the nasal cavity, known as the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory sensory neurons are bipolar, with their dendrites extending from the epithelium's apex into the mucus that lines the nasal cavity. Airborne molecules, when inhaled, traverse the olfactory...
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Prosopagnosia, also known as face blindness, is the inability to recognize faces. In severe cases, individuals with prosopagnosia may not recognize close family members, including parents and spouses, by their faces. For instance, someone with prosopagnosia might walk past their child in a crowd, only realizing their mistake upon noticing their child's distinctive backpack or favorite jacket. Prosopagnosia specifically impairs facial recognition, while the recognition of other objects or...
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Classical conditioning, as described by Ivan Pavlov, is a foundational concept in associative learning, where a neutral stimulus becomes capable of eliciting a conditioned response through association with an unconditioned stimulus. The process of acquisition, where this learning occurs, and the subsequent phenomena of contiguity, contingency, generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery are crucial for a comprehensive understanding of classical conditioning.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 29, 2025

A Lateralized Odor Learning Model in Neonatal Rats for Dissecting Neural Circuitry Underpinning Memory Formation
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Parosmia is Associated with Relevant Olfactory Recovery After Olfactory Training.

David T Liu1,2, Maha Sabha1, Michael Damm3

  • 1Smell and Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Medical Faculty Carl-Gustav Carus, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany.

The Laryngoscope
|November 19, 2020
PubMed
Summary

Parosmia, a smell distortion, is linked to better olfactory recovery in post-infectious olfactory dysfunction (PIOD) patients undergoing smell training. This finding suggests parosmia may indicate a positive prognosis for smell improvement.

Keywords:
Smellanosmiahyposmiaolfactionolfactory trainingparosmiasmell loss

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Area of Science:

  • Otolaryngology
  • Neuroscience
  • Olfactory Research

Background:

  • Post-infectious olfactory dysfunction (PIOD) significantly impacts quality of life.
  • Olfactory training (OT) is a primary treatment for PIOD.
  • The prognostic value of specific olfactory symptoms like parosmia in PIOD recovery remains under investigation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the association between parosmia and clinically relevant recovery of olfactory function in patients with PIOD undergoing olfactory training.
  • To determine if parosmia predicts improved olfactory threshold, discrimination, and identification.

Main Methods:

  • Retrospective cohort study including 153 adult patients with PIOD treated between 2008 and 2018.
  • Olfactory function assessed for threshold, discrimination, and identification.
  • Binary logistic regression analysis used to evaluate the association between smell-loss factors (including parosmia) and olfactory recovery.

Main Results:

  • Patients with lower baseline olfactory function were more likely to show clinically relevant improvements in overall olfactory function.
  • Parosmia at the initial visit was associated with improved olfactory discrimination and identification, particularly in those with lower baseline function.
  • Older age was linked to clinically significant improvements in odor threshold.

Conclusions:

  • The presence of parosmia is associated with a clinically relevant recovery in olfactory discrimination and identification functions in PIOD patients undergoing olfactory training.
  • Parosmia may serve as a positive prognostic indicator for specific aspects of olfactory function recovery in PIOD.
  • These findings support the continued use of olfactory training for PIOD patients, with parosmia potentially guiding expectations for recovery.