Hierarchically Releasing Bio-Responsive Nanoparticles for Complete Tumor Microenvironment Modulation via TGF-β...

The aggressive progression of breast cancer is impacted significantly by the tumor microenvironment (TME). The current chemotherapy normally causes cytotoxicity to tumor cells, while does not effectively modulate the TME. Thus, the chemotherapy effect of breast cancer is usually dissatisfactory. In this study, a kind of hierarchically releasing bio-responsive nanoparticles (R(D)/H(S) NPs), constructed by β-cyclodextrin-grafted heparin and pH-sensitive pseudorotaxane, were investigated to enhance the breast cancer chemotherapeutic efficacy through TME modulation. Doxorubicin (DOX) and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) receptor inhibitor (SB431542) loaded onto R(D)/H(S) NPs were released rapidly for the respective response to low pH in endosomes/lysosomes and heparanase (HPSE) in TME. Our results showed that R(D)/H(S) NPs effectively inhibited the formation of tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAFs) and reduced TGF-β and collagen I secretion. Besides, the immunosuppressive microenvironment was effectively reversed into immunogenic, characterized by increased CD8⁺ and CD4⁺ T cell infiltration, which distinctly inhibited breast cancer metastasis. Therefore, R(D)/H(S) NPs remodeled the TME by downregulating TAFs, TGF-β, and collagen I; activating the immune microenvironment; and then amplifying the chemotherapeutic efficacy of DOX.