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Updated: Nov 21, 2025

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats

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Models of benthic bipedalism.

F Giardina¹, L Mahadevan^1,2,3

¹John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA.

Journal of the Royal Society, Interface

|January 13, 2021

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers developed a theoretical model for aquatic walking, inspired by skates. This model predicts efficient gaits and gait bistability, which was confirmed in a bipedal robot, guiding biomimetic robot design.

Keywords:

benthic walking bipedalism robotics

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Area of Science:

Biomechanics
Robotics
Evolutionary Biology

Background:

Walking is a fundamental gait observed in diverse organisms, both terrestrial and aquatic.
Primitive aquatic walking mechanisms, particularly in species like the little skate (Leucoraja erinacea), offer insights into locomotion evolution.
Understanding the neural and physical basis of aquatic walking can inform robotic design.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a theoretical model for aquatic walking.
To investigate the requirements for robust and efficient aquatic gaits.
To explore gait bistability and its energetic implications in locomotion.

Main Methods:

Development of a theoretical model for aquatic walking.
Analysis of body undulation and foot placement patterns.
Application of a reinforcement learning scheme to discover gaits.
Construction and testing of a bipedal robot to validate model predictions.

Main Results:

The theoretical model predicts undulatory body behavior and regular foot placement, consistent with observations in the little skate.
The model predicts gait bistability, with two distinct states: one energetically costly and another nearly cost-free.
A bipedal robot demonstrated periodic gait and bistability, mirroring the model's predictions, including a transition between low and high efficiency modes.

Conclusions:

Physical constraints significantly influence the evolution of walking gaits.
The study provides a framework for understanding efficient aquatic locomotion.
Findings offer guidance for designing energy-efficient biomimetic robots capable of aquatic locomotion.