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Related Concept Videos

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects

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Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
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Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways01:28

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Insulin action is mediated through a receptor tyrosine kinase, akin to the IGF-1 receptor. The number of receptors per cell varies significantly, from 40 on erythrocytes to 300,000 on adipocytes and hepatocytes. The insulin receptor consists of linked α/β subunit dimers, forming a heterotetramer glycoprotein with two extracellular α subunits and two β subunits spanning the membrane. The α subunits inhibit the inherent tyrosine kinase activity of the β subunits, but...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Insulin Secretory Vesicles01:05

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Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
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Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype01:22

Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype

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Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to inadequate insulin production, insulin resistance, or both. The condition affects millions worldwide and can significantly impact their health and quality of life.
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Updated: Nov 21, 2025

Coculture Analysis of Extracellular Protein Interactions Affecting Insulin Secretion by Pancreatic Beta Cells
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Nutritional and developmental programming effects of insulin.

Laura Dearden1, Sebastien G Bouret2,3, Susan E Ozanne1

  • 1MRC Metabolic Diseases Unit, Wellcome Trust-MRC Institute of Metabolic Science, Addenbrooke's Treatment Centre, Addenbrooke's Hospital, University of Cambridge Metabolic Research Laboratories, Cambridge, UK.

Journal of Neuroendocrinology
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Summary

High insulin levels, often seen in gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), impact organ development and lifelong metabolic health. This review explores insulin

Keywords:
developmental programmingdiabeteshormoneshypothalamusobesity

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Developmental Biology
  • Metabolic Health

Background:

  • The discovery of insulin revolutionized diabetes therapy.
  • Rising rates of overweight and obesity correlate with increased gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM).
  • Infants born to mothers with GDM face elevated risks of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the role of insulin in placental, cardiovascular, and brain development.
  • To examine insulin's contribution to lifelong metabolic regulation.
  • To discuss potential interventions for developmental defects linked to GDM and obesity.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of accumulated evidence over the past two decades.
  • Synthesis of current knowledge on insulin's developmental effects.
  • Discussion of intervention strategies.

Main Results:

  • High insulin levels during critical developmental periods can affect multiple organs.
  • Insulin plays a role in the development of the placenta, cardiovascular system, and brain.
  • Insulin influences long-term metabolic regulation.

Conclusions:

  • Gestational diabetes mellitus and associated high insulin levels have significant, lasting impacts on offspring health.
  • Understanding insulin's developmental role is crucial for addressing GDM-related health concerns.
  • Intervention strategies may help mitigate or reverse developmental defects caused by GDM and obesity.