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Apoptosis

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Apoptosis is a combination of two Greek words, 'apo' and 'ptosis,' meaning separation and falling off, respectively. Hippocrates used this word to describe gangrene, which was caused due to bandaging of fractured bones. Apoptosis was distinguished from necrosis in 1970 when John Kerr reported observations of morphological changes occurring during apoptosis. During one experiment, he observed that the disruption of blood supply to the liver tissue resulted in a size...
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Osteoclasts are cells responsible for bone resorption and remodeling. They originate from hematopoietic progenitor cells present in the bone marrow. Numerous progenitor cells fuse to form multinucleated cells, each with 10-20 nuclei. A single osteoclast has a diameter of 150 to 200 µM. These cells have ruffled borders that break down the underlying bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the blood in bone resorption. Osteoclasts cling to bones with their ruffled edges during...
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Bone remodeling is a continuous and balanced process of bone resorption by osteoclasts and bone formation by osteoblasts. In adults, it helps maintain bone mass and calcium homeostasis. While mechanical stress can stimulate turnover as part of the normal maintenance and reparative process, several hormones also regulate bone remodeling.
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The Extrinsic Apoptotic Pathway01:17

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The extrinsic apoptotic pathway is initiated when extracellular death-inducing signals, such as specific cytokines, activate the death receptors expressed on the cell surface. The immune cells involved in this pathway are natural killer cells (NK cells) and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. NK cells are critical in innate immune response, while cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are associated with adaptive immune response. These cells recognize specific receptors expressed on the altered cells and activate...
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Cells undergoing apoptosis form apoptotic bodies that must be removed immediately to prevent inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and necrosis. Phagocytosis is carried out by professional phagocytes such as macrophages or  immature dendritic cells. Non-professional phagocytes such as  epithelial cells and fibroblasts also take part in this process; however, they are not as effective as professional phagocytes. 
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Internal cellular stress, such as cellular injury or hypoxia, triggers intrinsic apoptosis. The B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) family of proteins are the primary regulators of the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. For example, during DNA damage, checkpoint proteins, such as Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM protein) and Checkpoints Factor-2 (Chk2) proteins, are activated. These proteins phosphorylate p53 which further activates pro-apoptotic proteins, such as Bax, Bak, PUMA, and Noxa, and inhibits...
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Detection and Isolation of Apoptotic Bodies to High Purity
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Apoptosis in the Extraosseous Calcification Process.

Federica Boraldi1, Francesco Demetrio Lofaro1, Daniela Quaglino1,2

  • 1Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy.

Cells
|January 15, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Extraosseous calcification, a soft tissue mineralization, can be genetic or acquired. This review explores its mechanisms, focusing on apoptosis and mineralization in cartilage and vascular tissues.

Keywords:
apoptosiscartilagecell deathectopic mineralizationextracellular matrixvascular tissue

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Area of Science:

  • Pathology
  • Biochemistry
  • Cell Biology

Background:

  • Extraosseous calcification involves soft tissue mineralization, often linked to genetic factors or chronic diseases.
  • Acquired calcification has multifactorial causes, including intracellular and extracellular mechanisms like membrane vesicles, mitochondrial damage, and oxidative stress.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To provide an overview of extraosseous calcification mechanisms.
  • To focus on the interplay between apoptosis and mineralization in cartilage and vascular tissues.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of extraosseous calcification.
  • Analysis of mechanisms in cartilage and vascular tissues.
  • Focus on age-related diseases.

Main Results:

  • Extraosseous calcification is a complex process involving various cellular and extracellular pathways.
  • Apoptosis and mineralization are closely linked, particularly in cartilage and vascular tissues.
  • These processes are relevant to age-related diseases prevalent in Western countries.

Conclusions:

  • Understanding the mechanisms of extraosseous calcification is crucial for addressing associated age-related diseases.
  • Further research into the apoptosis-mineralization link may reveal therapeutic targets.