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Related Concept Videos

Microorganisms in Medicine and Therapeutics01:29

Microorganisms in Medicine and Therapeutics

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Microorganisms play a fundamental role in vaccine development, gene therapy, and therapeutic production. Their biological properties are harnessed to advance medicine and public health. Beyond immunization, microorganisms contribute to gut health, antibiotic synthesis, and genetic disease treatment.Live Attenuated and Inactivated VaccinesLive attenuated vaccines, such as the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, utilize weakened forms of pathogens to closely resemble natural infections.
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Leaky Scanning02:28

Leaky Scanning

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During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA.  Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R...
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Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps02:24

Regulation of Expression Occurs at Multiple Steps

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Gene expression can be regulated at almost every step from gene to protein. Transcription is the step that is most commonly regulated. This involves the binding of proteins to short regulatory sequences on the DNA. This association can either promote or inhibit the transcription of a gene associated with the respective sequence.
Transcription results in the generation of precursor (pre-mRNA) that consists of both exons and introns, which needs further processing before being translated to a...
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Nuclear Export of mRNA02:31

Nuclear Export of mRNA

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Before mRNAs are exported to the cytoplasm, it is crucial to check each mRNA for structural and functional integrity. Eukaryotic cells use several different mechanisms, collectively known as mRNA surveillance, to look for irregularities in mRNAs. Irregular or aberrant mRNA are rapidly degraded by various enzymes. If a defective mRNA escapes the surveillance, it would be translated into a protein which would either be non-functional or not function properly. One of the primary irregularities in...
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mRNA Stability and Gene Expression02:51

mRNA Stability and Gene Expression

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mRNA Stability and Gene Expression02:51

mRNA Stability and Gene Expression

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The structure and stability of mRNA molecules regulates gene expression, as mRNAs are a key step in the pathway from gene to protein. In eukaryotes, the half-life of mRNA varies from a few minutes up to several days. mRNA stability is essential in growth and development. The absence of the proteins regulating its stability, such as tristetraprolin in mice, can cause systemic issues, including bone marrow overgrowth, inflammation, and autoimmunity.
Cis-acting Elements involved in mRNA stability
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Updated: Nov 19, 2025

Synthesis and Characterization of mRNA-Loaded PolyBeta Aminoesters Nanoparticles for Vaccination Purposes
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Development of mRNA Vaccines: Scientific and Regulatory Issues.

Ivana Knezevic1, Margaret A Liu2, Keith Peden3

  • 1Department of Health Product Policy and Standards, World Health Organization, Avenue Appia 20, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland.

Vaccines
|January 27, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Messenger RNA (mRNA) vaccines show promise, but understanding their long-term safety, efficacy, and mechanisms requires further research. Global regulatory standards are being developed to ensure vaccine quality and facilitate international collaboration.

Keywords:
WHO standardsmRNA vaccinesprophylactic vaccinesregulatory considerationsvaccine development

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Area of Science:

  • Vaccinology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Immunology

Background:

  • Global research in mRNA vaccines has accelerated significantly, particularly due to the COVID-19 pandemic.
  • Despite advancements, knowledge gaps persist regarding mRNA vaccine mechanisms, long-term safety, and efficacy.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review mRNA prophylactic vaccine technologies, development status, and induced immune responses.
  • To discuss regulatory considerations for mRNA vaccine evaluation.
  • To highlight ongoing WHO initiatives for international guidance on mRNA vaccine manufacturing and control.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of mRNA vaccine technologies and development processes.
  • Analysis of immune responses elicited by mRNA vaccines.
  • Discussion of regulatory perspectives and WHO initiatives.

Main Results:

  • The paper outlines current mRNA vaccine development, associated technologies, and immune responses.
  • Key regulatory challenges and the need for standardized evaluation are identified.
  • WHO is actively working on international guidelines for mRNA vaccine quality, safety, and efficacy.

Conclusions:

  • Further research is needed to fully understand mRNA vaccine mechanisms and long-term performance.
  • Establishing global norms and standards is crucial for ensuring the quality, safety, and efficacy of mRNA vaccines.
  • International collaboration and regulatory harmonization are essential for facilitating the widespread adoption and accessibility of mRNA vaccines.