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Related Concept Videos

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius01:09

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The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a...
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Development of the Limb Synovial Joints01:07

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Joints form during embryonic development in conjunction with the formation and growth of the associated bones. The embryonic tissue that gives rise to all bones, cartilage, and connective tissues of the body is called mesenchyme.
The mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into chondrocytes that form the hyaline cartilage, and later the cartilaginous model of the bone. This model further transforms into a bone. This process is known as endochondral ossification.
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The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
Forearm Flexors
The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...
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The muscles of the forearm that move the wrist, hand, and digits are numerous and diverse. They can be classified into two groups based on their location and function — the anterior and posterior compartment muscles.
Anterior Compartment
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Assessing Forelimb Function after Unilateral Cervical SCI using Novel Tasks: Limb Step-alternation, Postural Instability and Pasta Handling
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Low elbow mobility indicates unique forelimb posture and function in a giant extinct marsupial.

Hazel L Richards1,2, Peter J Bishop3,4, David P Hocking1,2

  • 1School of Biological Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Vic, Australia.

Journal of Anatomy
|February 3, 2021
PubMed
Summary

The extinct marsupial Palorchestes azael had exceptionally low elbow joint mobility, limiting its forelimb posture. This unique functional ecology lacks clear analogues in living mammals.

Keywords:
Palorchestesbiomechanicsforelimbfunctional morphologyhelical axesjoint mobilitymegafaunarange of motion

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Area of Science:

  • Paleobiology
  • Biomechanics
  • Mammalogy

Background:

  • Joint mobility is crucial for tetrapod limb function and reconstructing extinct animal locomotion.
  • Virtual computational methods are advancing the quantification of osteological joint mobility, particularly in proximal limb joints.
  • The extinct marsupial Palorchestes azael presents unique elbow morphology, with assumed limited mobility.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To quantitatively assess the elbow joint mobility of Palorchestes azael using virtual computational methods.
  • To compare the elbow range of motion (ROM) of Palorchestes azael with living and extinct relatives and functional analogues.
  • To understand the functional ecology and forelimb posture of Palorchestes azael.

Main Methods:

  • Virtual range of motion (ROM) mapping of the elbow joint.
  • Helical axis analysis to determine joint movement.
  • Comparative analysis with extant and extinct mammal taxa.

Main Results:

  • Palorchestes azael exhibited the lowest elbow mobility among all sampled mammals, even with translational degrees of freedom.
  • The study identified a skewed primary axis of movement at the elbow due to coupled flexion and abduction.
  • This suggests a crouched forelimb posture and a unique humeral rotation gait.

Conclusions:

  • Palorchestes azael possessed highly restricted elbow mobility, leading to unusual forelimb postures for its size.
  • Its gait and forelimb function were distinct from other marsupials and extant large mammals.
  • This research introduces novel quantitative methods for studying joint mobility in extinct species.