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Related Concept Videos

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Incretins include glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP), which stimulate insulin secretion post-meals. In type 2 diabetes, GIP's efficacy is reduced, making GLP-1 a viable drug target. GIP originates from preproGIP.
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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...
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The pancreas, a vital organ within the abdominal cavity, plays dual roles in the digestive and endocrine systems, collaborating with exocrine and endocrine cells to maintain optimal digestion and blood sugar levels.
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The human body contains a monogastric digestive system. In a monogastric digestive system, the stomach only contains one chamber in which it digests food. Several other animal species also have monogastric digestive systems, including pigs, horses, dogs, and birds. This chapter, however, focuses on the human digestive system.
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Updated: Nov 18, 2025

Mechanisms Underlying Gut Hormone Secretion Using the Isolated Perfused Rat Small Intestine
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Evidence for Glucagon Secretion and Function Within the Human Gut.

Emily W Sun1, Alyce M Martin1, Dayan de Fontgalland2

  • 1Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia.

Endocrinology
|February 3, 2021
PubMed
Summary

The human gut produces glucagon, a hormone typically from the pancreas. This novel enteric glucagon/glucagon receptor circuit influences cholesterol uptake and gut motility.

Keywords:
GLP-1enteroendocrine cellsglucagongut hormones

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Gastroenterology
  • Molecular Biology

Background:

  • Glucagon, primarily from pancreatic alpha cells, regulates blood glucose.
  • The existence and role of extrapancreatic glucagon, particularly in the intestine, are not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the human gut as a source of extrapancreatic glucagon.
  • To explore the physiological functions of intestinal glucagon receptors (GCGRs).

Main Methods:

  • Mass spectrometry and ELISA to detect and quantify glucagon in human intestinal tissue.
  • In vitro assays to assess glucagon secretion, cholesterol uptake, and colonic motility.

Main Results:

  • Fully processed glucagon was detected in human intestinal mucosal lysate.
  • High glucose stimulated glucagon secretion from the ileum, independent of certain channels.
  • GCGR blockade affected cholesterol uptake and slowed colonic motility.

Conclusions:

  • The human gut is a potential source of extrapancreatic glucagon.
  • A novel enteric glucagon/GCGR circuit exists with functions beyond glucose regulation, impacting cholesterol homeostasis and gut motility.