Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Predicting Reaction Outcomes

Predicting Reaction Outcomes

Kinetics describes the rate and path by which a reaction occurs. In contrast, thermodynamics deals with state functions and describes the properties, behavior, and components of a system. It is not concerned with the path taken by the process and cannot address the rate at which a reaction occurs. Although it does provide information about what can happen during a reaction process, it does not describe the detailed steps of what appears on an atomic or a molecular level. On the other hand,...

Standard Entropy Change for a Reaction

Standard Entropy Change for a Reaction

Entropy is a state function, so the standard entropy change for a chemical reaction (ΔS°rxn) can be calculated from the difference in standard entropy between the products and the reactants.

Reaction Quotient

Reaction Quotient

The status of a reversible reaction is conveniently assessed by evaluating its reaction quotient (Q). For a reversible reaction described by m A + n B ⇌ x C + y D, the reaction quotient is derived directly from the stoichiometry of the balanced equation as

Reaction Mechanisms

Reaction Mechanisms

Chemical reactions often occur in a stepwise fashion, involving two or more distinct reactions taking place in a sequence. A balanced equation indicates the reacting species and the product species, but it reveals no details about how the reaction occurs at the molecular level. The reaction mechanism (or reaction path) provides details regarding the precise, step-by-step process by which a reaction occurs.
For instance, the decomposition of ozone appears to follow a mechanism with two steps:

Introduction to Chemical Reactions

Introduction to Chemical Reactions

All chemical reactions begin with a reactant, the general term for one or more substances entering the reaction. Sodium and chloride ions, for example, are the reactants in the production of table salt. One or more substances produced by a chemical reaction are called the product. Chemical reactions follow the law of conservation of mass, which means that matter cannot be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction. The components of the reactants—the number of atoms and the...

Limitations of Friedel–Crafts Reactions

Limitations of Friedel–Crafts Reactions

Several restrictions limit the use of Friedel–Crafts reactions. First, the halogen in the alkyl halide must be attached to an sp3-hybridized carbon for the Friedel–Crafts reactions to occur. Vinyl or aryl halides do not react since the carbocations formed are unstable under the reaction conditions. Second, Friedel–Crafts alkylation is susceptible to carbocation rearrangement, and the major products obtained have a rearranged carbon skeleton. In contrast, the acylium ion is...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Synergizing Chemical and AI Communities for Advancing Laboratories of the Future.

ACS central science·2026

Same author

Markovnikov hydroamination of terminal alkenes by phosphine redox catalysis.

Nature·2026

Same author

Transferable enantioselectivity models from sparse data.

Nature·2026

Same author

Photoinduced Cleavage of Alkenyl Fluorides for Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution via In Situ Generated Acyl Fluorides.

Organic letters·2025

Same author

Development, Application, and Mechanistic Interrogation of a Dual Ni Catalysis Approach to Photoredox-Based C(sp<sup>3</sup>)-C(sp<sup>3</sup>) Cross-Coupling.

Journal of the American Chemical Society·2025

Same author

Data Science-Driven Discovery of Optimal Conditions and a Condition-Selection Model for the Chan-Lam Coupling of Primary Sulfonamides.

ACS catalysis·2025

Same journal

Keep the Hubble and James Webb Space Telescopes alive - the science is worth the price tag.

Nature·2026

Same journal

Say hello to hard helium.

Nature·2026

Same journal

How to avoid dementia - what the science really says.

Nature·2026

Same journal

Save Hubble: the race to preserve the space telescope kicks off.

Nature·2026

Same journal

How long can humans live? All evidence points to a maximum of 125 years.

Nature·2026

Same journal

Listen to Gen Z when it comes to AI in education.

Nature·2026

See all related articles

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 18, 2025

Optimization of the Ugi Reaction Using Parallel Synthesis and Automated Liquid Handling

Optimization of the Ugi Reaction Using Parallel Synthesis and Automated Liquid Handling

Published on: November 11, 2008

Bayesian reaction optimization as a tool for chemical synthesis.

Benjamin J Shields¹, Jason Stevens², Jun Li²

¹Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA.

|February 4, 2021

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Bayesian optimization significantly improves chemical reaction optimization, outperforming human decision-making in efficiency and consistency. This data-driven approach enhances the synthesis of functional chemicals in laboratories.

More Related Videos

Author Spotlight: In Silico Creation and Impact of Carbonylated Amino Acids on Protein Structure and Function

Author Spotlight: In Silico Creation and Impact of Carbonylated Amino Acids on Protein Structure and Function

Published on: April 26, 2024

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

Published on: February 12, 2021

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Nov 18, 2025

Optimization of the Ugi Reaction Using Parallel Synthesis and Automated Liquid Handling

Optimization of the Ugi Reaction Using Parallel Synthesis and Automated Liquid Handling

Published on: November 11, 2008

Author Spotlight: In Silico Creation and Impact of Carbonylated Amino Acids on Protein Structure and Function

Author Spotlight: In Silico Creation and Impact of Carbonylated Amino Acids on Protein Structure and Function

Published on: April 26, 2024

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

Optimization of Radiochemical Reactions using Droplet Arrays

Published on: February 12, 2021

Area of Science:

Synthetic Chemistry
Artificial Intelligence
Computational Chemistry

Background:

Reaction and parameter optimization are crucial in synthetic chemistry and artificial intelligence.
High experimental costs necessitate efficient optimization strategies.
Bayesian optimization excels in machine learning but is under-explored for chemical reactions.

Purpose of the Study:

To develop a framework and open-source tool for Bayesian reaction optimization.
To assess Bayesian optimization's performance against human decision-making in synthetic chemistry.
To apply Bayesian optimization to real-world chemical synthesis challenges.

Main Methods:

Developed a Bayesian reaction optimization framework and software tool.
Collected benchmark data for a palladium-catalyzed direct arylation reaction.
Compared Bayesian optimization with human experts via an online game linked to laboratory experiments.

Main Results:

Bayesian optimization demonstrated superior average optimization efficiency compared to human decision-making.
Bayesian optimization showed greater consistency in outcomes than human experts.
Successfully applied Bayesian optimization to Mitsunobu and deoxyfluorination reactions.

Conclusions:

Bayesian optimization is a powerful tool for chemical reaction optimization.
This data-driven approach enhances efficiency and consistency in experimental design.
Adopting Bayesian optimization can lead to more efficient synthesis of functional chemicals.