Reproduction and the Early Development of Vertebrates in Space: Problems, Results, Opportunities

Humans and animals adapt to space flight conditions. However, the adaptive changes of fully formed organisms differ radically from the responses of vertebrate embryos, foetuses, and larvae to space flight. Development is associated with active cell proliferation and the formation of organs and systems. The instability of these processes is well known. Over 20 years has passed since the last systematic experiments on vertebrate reproduction and development in space flight. At the same time, programs are being prepared for the exploration of Mars and the Moon, which justifies further investigations into space flight's impact on vertebrate development. This review focuses on various aspects of reproduction and early development of vertebrates in space flights. The results of various experiments on fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals are described. The experiments in which our team took part and ontogeny of the vertebrate nervous and special sensory systems are considered in more detail. Possible causes of morphological changes are also discussed. Research on evolutionarily and taxonomically different models can advance the understanding of reproduction in microgravity. Reptiles, in particular, geckos, due to their special features, can be a promising object of space developmental biology.