Bacteria and archaea are susceptible to viral infections just like eukaryotes; therefore, they have developed a unique adaptive immune system to protect themselves. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats and CRISPR-associated proteins (CRISPR-Cas) are present in more than 45% of known bacteria and 90% of known archaea.
The CRISPR-Cas system stores a copy of foreign DNA in the host genome and uses it to identify the foreign DNA upon reinfection. CRISPR-Cas has three different...

Genome editing technologies allow scientists to modify an organism’s DNA via the addition, removal, or rearrangement of genetic material at specific genomic locations. These types of techniques could potentially be used to cure genetic disorders such as hemophilia and sickle cell anemia. One popular and widely used DNA-editing research tool that could lead to safe and effective cures for genetic disorders is the CRISPR-Cas9 system. CRISPR-Cas9 stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced...

CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats is a adaptive immune system found in bacteria and archaea that protects against viral infections. This system enables prokaryotic cells to identify, remember, and neutralize foreign genetic elements, primarily bacteriophages, by storing fragments of the invader’s DNA as a genetic memory.The CRISPR immune response begins during an initial infection. Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins play a central role in this...

The CRISPR-Cas system serves as a bacterial defense mechanism against invading genetic elements such as viruses and plasmids, forming the foundation for its adaptation as a powerful genome-editing tool. Originally discovered in prokaryotes, this system has been repurposed to revolutionize genetic engineering across a wide range of organisms, including plants, animals, and humans. The core component, Cas9, is an endonuclease derived from Streptococcus pyogenes, capable of introducing...

The basic reaction of homologous recombination (HR) involves two chromatids that contain DNA sequences sharing a significant stretch of identity. One of these sequences uses a strand from another as a template to synthesize DNA in an enzyme-catalyzed reaction. The final product is a novel amalgamation of the two substrates. To ensure an accurate recombination of sequences, HR is restricted to the S and G2 phases of the cell cycle. At these stages, the DNA has been replicated already and the...

Cell division is essential for organismal growth and development. In animal cells, the central spindle and its associated proteins form the midbody, a structure that has an essential role in cytokinesis. In plants, the central spindle, along with the microtubules, actin, and other cell components, matures into the phragmoplast, which is necessary for cytokinesis. Unlike the stationary midbody, the phragmoplast expands centrifugally, eventually leading to the formation of the new cell wall.
The...