Polybrominated diphenyl ethers from automobile microenvironment: Occurrence, sources, and exposure assessment

To investigate the level of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination in the automobile microenvironment, air and dust samples were collected from 15 family automobiles in Hangzhou City, China. The PBDE concentrations, distribution of congeners, and human exposure were determined; and the content and distribution of PBDEs in automotive interior materials were analyzed. The results revealed that the average and median concentrations of ∑₁₄PBDEs in the air in automobiles were 732 and 695 pg/m³, respectively, whereas those in automotive dust were 4913 and 5094 ng/g, respectively. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) had the highest proportion, accounting for 61.3% and 88.8% of the ∑₁₄PBDEs in the air and dust, respectively. The potential primary sources of PBDEs in automobile air and dust were volatile polyurethanes in seat covers and foot pads, respectively. Human exposure calculations revealed that infants and toddlers in cars were most exposed to air and dust, respectively. BDE-47 and -99 were the primary sources of health risks related to air and dust in cars.