The ecosystem service value of maintaining and expanding terrestrial protected areas in China

Maintaining and expanding protected areas (PAs) can benefit humans and the rest of nature, but also has direct management and opportunity costs. Assessing this trade-off can benefit from valuing ecosystem services (ESs). The gross value of a subset of ESs provided by China's existing terrestrial PAs, which cover 18% of China's land, was conservatively estimated at $2.64 trillion/yr (US$₂₀₁₇). This is 15 and 14 times the basic conservation costs (for preventing current ESs and biodiversity from deteriorating) and optimised conservation costs (for potentially improving ESs and biodiversity), respectively. China is committed to drawing an 'eco-redline' (the natural terrestrial space that has important ESs, biodiversity, vulnerable and sensitive ecosystems, and enforced strict conservation) to protect 25% of its lands. If the 'eco-redline' was to conserve 25% of China's terrestrial water retention, soil retention, sandstorm prevention, carbon sequestration and oxygen release, the gross value of those conserved regulating ESs would be $4.83 trillion/yr. This is 20 and 18 times the basic and optimised conservation costs, respectively. These results indicate that, the arguments that conservation constrains economic development and increases ecosystem disservices are not tenable. The results make clear the interconnections between conservation and the economy, and that true economic development is improvement of sustainable wellbeing - not merely growth of Gross Domestic Product (GDP).