Mechanistic Diversity of Low-Valent Chromium Catalysis: Cross-Coupling and Hydrofunctionalization

ConspectusTransition-metal catalysis has traditionally been dominated by precious metals because of their high reactivity toward chemical transformations. As a cost-effective alternative, catalysis by earth-abundant group 6 metal chromium is underdeveloped, and its reactivity remains largely unexplored, although the industrially important Phillips catalyst, which is composed of Cr as the active metal, is currently used to supply almost 40% of the total world demand for high-density polyethylene. Cr has traditionally served in organoreagents with high-valent states (≥2+), which are typified by reactions involving Nozaki-Hiyama-Kishi (NHK) and Takai-Utimoto one-electron transfer processes. Given that low-valent metals usually facilitate the process of oxidative addition (OA), studying the catalysis of Cr in the low-valent state provides the opportunity to develop new transformations. However, probably because of the low stability of reactive low-valent Cr or the lack of catalytic activity of structurally stable complexes, there has been limited success with respect to developing catalysis promoted by low-valent Cr. In recent years, our group has probed the reactivity of low-valent Cr in catalysis by adopting a strategy of forming reactive Cr in situ. In this Account, we detail our efforts to study the catalytic behavior and mechanism of low-valent Cr in challenging transformations, such as the cleavage of chemically inert bonds for the cross-coupling and hydrofunctionalization of arenes and nitro motifs, by developing strategies to address the prominent selectivity issues. We highlight the finding that low-valent Cr, being formed in situ, possesses the intriguing ability to promote the catalytic cleavage of unactivated C-O, C-N, and C-H bonds to achieve the Kumada couplings and even to enable challenging cross-coupling between two unactivated C(aryl)-O/C(aryl)-N bonds. During these catalytic processes, Cr usually adopts a high-spin state to interact with chemicals, allowing for insertion into unactivated σ-bonds. The OA catalytic model involving a two-electron process for the cleavage of unactivated bonds has rarely been considered for Cr. We highlight the finding that Cr allows for the breakage of two chemically inert bonds in one catalytic cycle. This ability is intriguing because most transition metals are suitable only for the cleavage of one unactivated bond in catalysis. Mechanisms involving two-electron OA for Cr are unusual, with processes involving one-electron transfer more often proposed, as exemplified in the NHK reactions. These reactions provide efficient strategies for forming functionalized benzaldehydes, amides, anilines, and amines, usually with high levels of selectivity. We hope that this account will extend the scope of cognition to Cr catalysis.