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Related Concept Videos

Anaphase A and B01:39

Anaphase A and B

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Microtubules form through the end-to-end polymerization of tubulin heterodimers. Kinetochore microtubules originate from the spindle poles, and their plus-ends connect with the kinetochores on sister-chromatids. Ndc80 protein complexes, present on the kinetochore, form low-affinity links with the plus end of these kinetochore microtubules.
Plus-end depolymerization releases tubulin heterodimers from the terminal region of the microtubule. As tubulin subunits are lost, the Ndc80 complexes detach...
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Anaphase Promoting Complex00:50

Anaphase Promoting Complex

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The stepwise destruction of specific proteins is necessary for the progression and completion of the cell cycle. Such proteins are ubiquitinated by ubiquitin ligases and then subsequently destroyed by the proteasome. The SCF (Skp1/Cullin/F-box) and the anaphase-promoting complex (APC) are two important ubiquitin ligases involved in cell cycle progression. While SCF is active throughout the cell cycle, APC gets activated during metaphase to anaphase transition. Cdc20 or Cdh1 binds to APC and...
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Separation of Sister Chromatids02:17

Separation of Sister Chromatids

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At the transition from prophase to metaphase, there is a reduction in cohesion along the chromosomal arms, resulting in the resolution of sister chromatids. However, residual cohesin connections remain to hold the sister chromatids together until the transition from metaphase to anaphase. The residual connection prevents any premature separation of sister chromatids, blocking the risks of aneuploidy within the daughter cells.
At the onset of anaphase, separase, a proteolytic enzyme, is...
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Attachment of Sister Chromatids02:57

Attachment of Sister Chromatids

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As cells progress into mitosis, the nuclear envelope breaks down, and the condensed chromosomes are exposed to the array of bipolar microtubules of the mitotic spindle. The kinetochore, a large, disc-shaped protein complex, is present at the centromere region of the sister chromatids and acts as a binding site for the microtubules.  Usually, the plus-end of a single microtubule is embedded within the kinetochore. However, some kinetochores first establish lateral contact with the side-wall...
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Forces Acting on Chromosomes02:11

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

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During mitosis, chromosome movements occur through the interplay of multiple piconewton level forces. In prometaphase, these forces help in chromosome assembly or congression at the equatorial plane, eventually leading to their alignment at the metaphase plate. The forces acting on the chromosomes are space and time-dependent; therefore, they vary with the position of the chromosomes as the cell progresses through mitosis. 
Microtubules and motor proteins exert two types of forces on...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 9, 2025

Live Cell Imaging to Assess the Dynamics of Metaphase Timing and Cell Fate Following Mitotic Spindle Perturbations
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Live Cell Imaging to Assess the Dynamics of Metaphase Timing and Cell Fate Following Mitotic Spindle Perturbations

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Anaphase B: Long-standing models meet new concepts.

Kruno Vukušić1, Iva M Tolić1

  • 1Division of Molecular Biology, Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička cesta 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.

Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology
|April 14, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Mitotic cell division relies on anaphase B spindle elongation for separating chromosomes. This review details the molecular mechanisms driving this crucial process in mammalian cells.

Keywords:
Anaphase BChromosome segregationMicrotubule pullingMicrotubule pushingMicrotubule slidingMotor proteinsSpindle elongation

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Area of Science:

  • Cell Biology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Mitotic cell divisions ensure genetic stability across generations.
  • The mitotic spindle segregates sister chromatids to opposite poles.
  • Anaphase involves two key processes: anaphase A (microtubule depolymerization) and anaphase B (spindle elongation).

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the mechanisms of anaphase B spindle elongation in mammalian systems.
  • To integrate historical and recent findings on force generation and regulation during spindle elongation.
  • To present a comprehensive model of anaphase B.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on anaphase B.
  • Synthesis of pioneering and contemporary research findings.
  • Development of a comprehensive model integrating structural, biophysical, and molecular aspects.

Main Results:

  • Anaphase B spindle elongation is essential for proper chromosome segregation.
  • Mechanisms involve force generation and regulation of specific biochemical modules.
  • A comprehensive model for anaphase B is proposed.

Conclusions:

  • Understanding anaphase B is critical for comprehending cell division.
  • The proposed model offers insights into the structural, biophysical, and molecular underpinnings of spindle elongation.
  • This review consolidates knowledge on a fundamental process in cell biology.