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Updated: Nov 8, 2025

Application of Long-term cultured Interferon-γ Enzyme-linked Immunospot Assay for Assessing Effector and Memory T Cell Responses in Cattle
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Vaccination boosts protective responses and counters SARS-CoV-2-induced pathogenic memory B cells.

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Medrxiv : the Preprint Server for Health Sciences
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SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) vaccination boosts robust immune responses in recovered individuals, enhancing antibody and B cell activity. Vaccination also reversed immune dysfunction and may reduce Long-COVID symptoms.

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Virology
  • Vaccinology

Background:

  • Understanding the interplay between SARS-CoV-2 infection and vaccination is crucial for effective public health strategies.
  • Immune responses following infection and vaccination vary, impacting long-term immunity and potential sequelae like Long-COVID.

Approach:

  • This study monitored SARS-CoV-2 Spike Receptor-Binding-Domain (RBD) specific immune responses in convalescent individuals for eight months post-infection and after vaccination.
  • Key immune parameters analyzed included neutralizing antibodies, RBD-specific memory B cells, and dysfunctional double negative B memory cells.

Key Points:

  • Neutralizing antibody levels specific to SARS-CoV-2 RBD generally decreased over time post-infection, while RBD-specific memory B cells remained persistent.
  • Vaccination in convalescent individuals elicited more vigorous RBD-specific antibody and B cell responses compared to infection alone or vaccination in infection-naïve individuals.
  • Frequencies of dysfunctional double negative B memory cells increased in convalescent subjects over time but were reversed by vaccination.

Conclusions:

  • The findings reveal a novel aspect of immune dysfunction associated with mild to moderate COVID-19.
  • SARS-CoV-2 vaccination is recommended for all individuals, irrespective of prior infection history.
  • Vaccination may offer a mechanistic pathway to reduce the incidence or severity of Long-COVID symptoms.