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Related Concept Videos

Bias in Epidemiological Studies01:29

Bias in Epidemiological Studies

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Biases can arise at various stages of research, from study design and data collection to analysis and interpretation. Recognizing and addressing these biases is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of epidemiological findings.Broadly speaking, biases in epidemiology fall into three main categories: selection bias, information bias, and confounding. A more detailed description of possible biases is:  
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Sexually Transmitted Infections01:26

Sexually Transmitted Infections

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Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are diseases transmitted primarily through unsafe sexual interactions. Bacteria, viruses, or parasites cause them and can result in severe health complications if untreated.ChlamydiaThe bacterium Chlamydia trachomatis is responsible for the disease Chlamydia, the most common STI in the United States. This peculiar pathogen requires human cells to reproduce, residing intracellularly. The initial infection often goes unnoticed because it typically does not...
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Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection01:26

Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection

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The hosts' susceptibility to infection depends on several factors. The integrity of the skin and mucous membranes helps protect the body against microbial attacks. When the skin is altered, the chance of infection, limb loss, and even death increases.
The integrity and count of the white blood cells help the body resist pathogens and fight infection. When impaired, it reduces the body's resistance to pathogens. The acidic pH levels of the gastrointestinal, genitourinary tracts, and skin...
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The Y Chromosome Determines Maleness02:19

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The Y chromosome is a sex chromosome found in several vertebrates and mammals, including humans. In addition to 22 pairs of autosomes, the human males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. In these organisms, the presence or absence of the Y chromosome determines the development of male traits.
Evolution
Around 300 million years ago, the two sex chromosomes diverged from two identical autosomal chromosomes. Over time, the Y chromosome has lost most of its genes, shrinking in size....
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Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms-SNPs01:05

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms-SNPs

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A single nucleotide polymorphism or SNP is a single nucleotide variation at a specific genomic position in a large population. It is the most prevalent type of sequence variation found in the human genome. Point mutations that occur in more than 1% of the population qualify as SNPs. These are present once every 1000 nucleotides on an average in the human genome. Replacement of a purine with another purine (A/G) or a pyrimidine with another pyrimidine (C/T) is known as a transition. In contrast,...
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The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes02:45

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

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In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.  
Normal male Drosophila has a ratio of one X chromosome to two sets of autosomes. In contrast, normal female...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 8, 2025

Sex Stratified Neuronal Cultures to Study Ischemic Cell Death Pathways
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Sex-Based Differences in COVID-19 Outcomes.

Astha Tejpal1, Eugenia Gianos1,2, Jane Cerise3

  • 1Division of Cardiology, Lenox Hill Hospital, Northwell Health, New York, New York, USA.

Journal of Women'S Health (2002)
|April 22, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Women hospitalized with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) experienced significantly lower mortality and fewer severe outcomes. Female sex appears to be associated with better in-hospital results and reduced adverse events during the pandemic.

Keywords:
COVID-19genderhospital outcomesintensive caremortalitysex

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Area of Science:

  • Infectious Diseases
  • Epidemiology
  • Critical Care Medicine

Background:

  • Emerging evidence suggested potential sex-based differences in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) severity.
  • Understanding these disparities is crucial for optimizing patient care and public health strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the association between female sex and clinical outcomes in a large cohort of hospitalized COVID-19 patients.
  • To determine if female sex confers protection against severe disease manifestations and mortality.

Main Methods:

  • Retrospective observational cohort study of 10,630 adult patients hospitalized with confirmed COVID-19.
  • Logistic regression analysis was employed to assess the relationship between sex and outcomes like ICU admission, mechanical ventilation, and mortality.
  • Follow-up extended through June 4, 2020.

Main Results:

  • Women had significantly lower odds of in-hospital mortality (27% reduction), ICU admission (24% reduction), and mechanical ventilation (26% reduction).
  • Female patients also showed reduced odds of acute cardiac injury (34% reduction), acute kidney injury (16% reduction), and venous thromboembolism (27% reduction).
  • These findings remained significant after multivariable analysis.

Conclusions:

  • Female sex is independently associated with better in-hospital outcomes and lower all-cause mortality in COVID-19 patients.
  • Potential protective biological mechanisms inherent to female physiology may contribute to these observed differences in COVID-19 outcomes.