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Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...
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The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Muscle coordination is a complex and finely tuned process essential for smooth and purposeful movements like flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation. The human body orchestrates the actions of various muscles working in concert, each with a specific role. Four functional types describe how muscles work together: agonist, antagonist, synergist, and fixator.
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The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
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The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 8, 2025

Arthroscopic Management of Massive Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears: Whole Rotator Cable Reconstruction Using Proximal Biceps Tendon Autograft
07:22

Arthroscopic Management of Massive Irreparable Rotator Cuff Tears: Whole Rotator Cable Reconstruction Using Proximal Biceps Tendon Autograft

Published on: June 6, 2025

294

Biceps Rerouting for Semirigid Large-to-Massive Rotator Cuff Tears.

Sung-Min Rhee1, Seung-Min Youn2, Joon Hong Park1

  • 1Shoulder & Elbow Clinic, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, College of Medicine, Kyung Hee University, Seoul, Korea.

Arthroscopy : the Journal of Arthroscopic & Related Surgery : Official Publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association
|April 23, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with biceps rerouting significantly lowers retear rates for large tears compared to conventional repair. Pre-existing long head of the biceps tendon tears increase retear risk.

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Area of Science:

  • Orthopedic Surgery
  • Sports Medicine
  • Shoulder Reconstruction

Background:

  • Rotator cuff tears, particularly large to massive ones, present significant challenges in shoulder joint repair.
  • The long head of the biceps tendon (LHBT) is often involved in rotator cuff pathology, influencing surgical outcomes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare clinical and radiographic outcomes of arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with biceps rerouting (ARCR + BR) versus conventional arthroscopic rotator cuff repair (ARCR) for semirigid, large-to-massive rotator cuff tears.

Main Methods:

  • A prospective study of 111 patients with semirigid, large-to-massive rotator cuff tears was conducted.
  • Patients were divided into two groups: ARCR + BR (n=59) and ARCR alone (n=52).
  • Preoperative factors, including LHBT lesions, were analyzed, and univariate logistic regression identified retear predictors.

Main Results:

  • Both groups showed significant and comparable improvements in range of motion and functional scores.
  • The retear rate was significantly lower in the ARCR + BR group (18.6%) compared to the ARCR alone group (48.1%).
  • Preoperative partial tearing of the LHBT (>50%) and specific LHBT morphologies (wide/thin) were identified as significant risk factors for retear.

Conclusions:

  • Arthroscopic rotator cuff repair with biceps rerouting is effective for semirigid, large-to-massive rotator cuff tears, offering improved structural outcomes.
  • ARCR + BR demonstrates a significantly lower retear rate compared to conventional ARCR.
  • Partial LHBT tears (>50%) and specific tendon morphologies are key predictors of postoperative retear.