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Related Concept Videos

Muscles of the Shoulder01:23

Muscles of the Shoulder

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The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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Treatment for a fracture is based on the type of break, the bone affected, and the patient's age.
Minor fractures with no bone displacement are treated by immobilizing the fractured bone using a cast or splint. However, in the case of fractures with displaced bones, the broken bones are repositioned before immobilization to ensure successful healing without deformation and loss of function. The realignment of fractured bone ends is performed through a process called reduction. If the...
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Functional Classification of Joints01:09

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Functional Classification of Joints
The functional classification of joints is determined by the amount of mobility between the adjacent bones. Joints are functionally classified as a synarthrosis or immobile joint, an amphiarthrosis or slightly moveable joint, or as a diarthrosis, a freely moveable joint. Fibrous and cartilaginous joints can be functionally classified as either synarthroses  or amphiarthroses, whereas all synovial joints are classified as diarthroses.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 4, 2025

Measuring 3D In-vivo Shoulder Kinematics using Biplanar Videoradiography
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Bipolar Bone Defects in Shoulders With Primary Instability: Dislocation Versus Subluxation.

Shigeto Nakagawa1, Wataru Sahara2, Kazutaka Kinugasa3

  • 1Department of Orthopaedic Sports Medicine, Yukioka Hospital, Osaka, Japan.

Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine
|May 26, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Bipolar bone defects are more common and larger in shoulders with primary dislocation compared to subluxation. Older patients (≥30 years) with dislocation also show larger combined defect sizes.

Keywords:
3-dimensional computed tomographybipolar bone defectspatient ageprimary dislocationprimary subluxationscoring system

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Area of Science:

  • Orthopedic Surgery
  • Traumatology
  • Radiology

Background:

  • Bipolar bone defects in shoulders with traumatic anterior instability indicate prognosis.
  • Understanding these defects is crucial for effective treatment strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate bipolar bone defects in primary shoulder instability.
  • To compare defect characteristics between dislocation and subluxation events.

Main Methods:

  • A cohort study of 156 shoulders (156 patients) with primary instability.
  • 3D CT scans classified glenoid and Hill-Sachs lesions (0-4 points each).
  • Combined defect scores (0-8 points) compared between dislocation and subluxation groups, stratified by age.

Main Results:

  • Dislocation group had more frequent and larger Hill-Sachs lesions and combined defects than subluxation.
  • Combined defect size was significantly larger in dislocation (2.1 ± 1.6) vs. subluxation (0.8 ± 0.9).
  • Older patients (≥30 years) with dislocation showed larger combined defect sizes.

Conclusions:

  • Bipolar bone defects are more frequent and larger in primary shoulder dislocations.
  • Age is a significant factor, with older patients exhibiting larger defects in dislocation cases.