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Synaptic Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.
Most synapses are chemical, meaning an electrical impulse or action potential spurs the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. The neuron sending the signal is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the signal is the postsynaptic neuron.
The presynaptic neuron fires an action potential that...

Synaptic Signaling

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.

Chemical Synapses

Chemical Synapses

Chemical synapses are specialized sites between two neurons or between a neuron and a non-neuronal cell like a muscle, glandular or sensory cell.
Because chemical synapses depend on the release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles to pass on their signal, there is an approximately one millisecond delay between when the axon potential reaches the presynaptic terminal and when the neurotransmitter leads to opening of postsynaptic ion channels. Additionally, this signaling is...

Chemical Synapses

Chemical Synapses

Chemical synapses are specialized sites between two neurons or between a neuron and a non-neuronal cell like a muscle, glandular or sensory cell.
Because chemical synapses depend on the release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles to pass on their signal, there is an approximately one millisecond delay between when the axon potential reaches the presynaptic terminal and when the neurotransmitter leads to opening of postsynaptic ion channels. Additionally, this signaling is...

The Synapse

The Synapse

Neurons communicate with one another by passing on their electrical signals to other neurons. A synapse is the location where two neurons meet to exchange signals. At the synapse, the neuron that sends the signal is called the presynaptic cell, while the neuron that receives the message is called the postsynaptic cell. Note that most neurons can be both presynaptic and postsynaptic, as they both transmit and receive information.

Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects of Neurotransmitters

Excitatory and Inhibitory Effects of Neurotransmitters

When an action potential reaches the presynaptic axon terminal, it releases neurotransmitters from the neuron into the synaptic cleft at a chemical synapse. The released neurotransmitter can be excitatory or inhibitory. The critical criteria commonly used to determine whether a molecule is a neurotransmitter at a chemical synapse are the molecule's presence in the presynaptic neuron. Second, its release is in response to strong presynaptic depolarization. And lastly, the presence of...

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Correction: Savtchenko, L.P.; Rusakov, D.A. Glutamate-Transporter Unbinding in Probabilistic Synaptic Environment Facilitates Activation of Distant NMDA Receptors. <i>Cells</i> 2023, <i>12</i>, 1610.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Nov 1, 2025

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

Published on: July 31, 2013

Synaptic environment and extrasynaptic glutamate signals: The quest continues.

Dmitri A Rusakov¹, Michael G Stewart²

¹UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, Queen Square, London, WC1N 3BG, UK.

Neuropharmacology

|June 26, 2021

Summary

Glutamate transporters on astroglia regulate brain signaling by controlling glutamate levels. Understanding glutamate spillover is key to brain function and cognitive processes.

Keywords:

Dendritic spines Glutamate spillover Micro-physiology Perisynaptic astrocyte processes (PAP)Synaptic cleft Synaptic connections

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Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

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Last Updated: Nov 1, 2025

Fast Micro-iontophoresis of Glutamate and GABA: A Useful Tool to Investigate Synaptic Integration

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Published on: July 31, 2013

Single Synapse Indicators of Glutamate Release and Uptake in Acute Brain Slices from Normal and Huntington Mice

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Published on: March 11, 2020

Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

Published on: April 23, 2019

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Cell Biology
Biochemistry

Background:

Mammalian brain function depends on excitatory glutamatergic synapses.
Perisynaptic astroglial processes (PAPs) express high-affinity transporters that buffer synaptic glutamate.
The spatial arrangement of synapses and PAPs is critical for glutamate signaling.

Purpose of the Study:

To examine glutamate receptor actions within and outside the synaptic cleft.
To investigate the conditions and extent of glutamate escape from the synaptic cleft.
To understand the role of glutamate spillover in cognitive functions.

Main Methods:

Utilizing super-resolution microscopy techniques to visualize synaptic micro-architecture.
Analyzing glutamate transporter function and kinetics.
Investigating glutamate receptor activation under physiological and pathological conditions.

Main Results:

Glutamate diffusion beyond the synaptic cleft is influenced by transporter density and activity.
Glutamate spillover activates extrasynaptic receptors, modulating neuronal excitability.
Astroglial glutamate uptake shapes synaptic transmission and network activity.

Conclusions:

The spatial organization of glutamatergic synapses and astroglial transporters is fundamental to brain signaling.
Glutamate spillover and extrasynaptic receptor activation are critical for normal brain function and cognition.
Disruptions in glutamate homeostasis can impact neurological health.