Nitrogen budgets of contrasting crop-livestock systems in China

The crop-livestock system is responsible for a large proportion of global reactive nitrogen (Nr) losses, especially from China. There are diverse livestock systems with contrasting differences in feed, livestock and manure management. However, it is not yet well understood which factors greatly impact on the nitrogen (N) budgets and losses of each system. In this study, we systematically evaluated the N budgets of the crop-livestock production system from 1980 to 2050 in China by identifying the differences of 20 distinct livestock systems. During 1980 to 2010, the total N flow through the crop-livestock system increased from 21.4 to 49.7 Tg, with large variations in different input/output pathways, due to the strong livestock transitions of production towards to a monogastric and landless industrial system. Different systems contributed differently to the total N budgets in 2010. For example, the landless industrial system contributed 67% of livestock product N output, but accounted for 80% of total mineral N fertilizer use and feed N imports by the whole crop-livestock system. The mixed system had the highest rate of N use efficiency at system level due to high dependence on recycled N. N losses were diversely distributed by different systems, with the mixed ruminant system responsible for the majority of NH₃-N emission in livestock production, and the grazing ruminant system dominant in NO₃-N losses in feed production. The total N entering the crop-livestock system is estimated to be 53.9 Tg with total N losses of 41.3 Tg in 2050 under a business-as-usual scenario. However, this amount could be significantly decreased through combined measures that indicate a considerable potential for future improvements. Overall, our results provide new insights into N use and the management of livestock production.