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Updated: Oct 29, 2025

Dissection and Flat-mounting of the Threespine Stickleback Branchial Skeleton
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Complex macroevolutionary dynamics underly the evolution of the crocodyliform skull.

Ryan N Felice1,2, Diego Pol3, Anjali Goswami2

  • 1Centre for Integrative Anatomy, Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, UK.

Proceedings. Biological Sciences
|July 13, 2021
PubMed
Summary

Crocodyliform skulls appear conserved but show complex evolutionary dynamics. Modern species evolve rapidly within limited skull shapes, demonstrating functional importance and convergence.

Keywords:
convergent evolutioncrocodileevolutionary rateskullthree-dimensional morphometrics

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Area of Science:

  • Paleontology
  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Comparative Anatomy

Background:

  • Modern crocodyliforms (crocodiles, alligators, gharials) exhibit cranial homogeneity.
  • Extinct relatives displayed diverse skull structures, including herbivorous and marine forms.
  • This suggests a complex macroevolutionary history shaping current low phenotypic variation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To quantify whole-skull morphology in modern and fossil crocodyliforms.
  • To investigate factors influencing the macroevolutionary history and skull variation in crocodyliforms.
  • To understand the evolutionary dynamics of crocodyliform cranial morphology over time.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized high-dimensional three-dimensional geometric morphometrics.
  • Analyzed skull morphology across a range of modern and fossil crocodyliform species.
  • Applied evolutionary modeling to assess rates and patterns of cranial evolution.

Main Results:

  • Cranial evolution was initially rapid in extinct Notosuchia, slowing in Neosuchia, with a burst in crown-group crocodiles.
  • Modern crocodiles, particularly in the Indo-Pacific, show high evolutionary rates despite low variation.
  • Jaw-closing structures exhibit high variability, highlighting functional drivers of phenotypic change.

Conclusions:

  • Apparent crocodyliform skull conservatism masks complex macroevolutionary dynamics.
  • Extant lineages exhibit rapid fluctuations within limited morphospace, leading to convergence.
  • Cranial functional morphology plays a crucial role in driving phenotypic variation throughout crocodyliform evolution.