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The various IMFs between identical molecules of a substance are examples of cohesive forces. The molecules within a liquid are surrounded by other molecules and are attracted equally in all directions by the cohesive forces within the liquid. However, the molecules on the surface of a liquid are attracted only by about one-half as many molecules. Because of the unbalanced molecular attractions on the surface molecules, liquids contract to form a shape that minimizes the number...
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Viscosity measures the resistance a fluid offers to flow and deformation. It results from internal friction between layers of fluid moving relative to one another. Dynamic viscosity, denoted by the Greek letter mu (μ), quantifies the force needed to move one fluid layer over another. For Newtonian fluids like water and air, the relationship between the shearing stress and the rate of shearing strain is linear, meaning their viscosity remains constant regardless of the applied stress.
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Surface tension is a fundamental property of fluids, occurring at the boundary between a liquid and a gas or between two immiscible liquids. This phenomenon arises from the cohesive forces between molecules at the fluid's surface, creating an effect similar to a stretched elastic membrane. Inside each fluid, molecules are equally attracted in all directions by neighboring molecules, but surface molecules experience a net inward force, resulting in surface tension.
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Capillarity in Fluid01:19

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Capillarity describes the movement of liquid in small spaces without external forces acting on it. The capillarity is driven by surface tension and adhesive interactions between the liquid and surrounding solid surfaces. This effect is often seen in narrow tubes, porous materials, and fine particles.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 28, 2025

Chemotactic Response of Marine Micro-Organisms to Micro-Scale Nutrient Layers
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Teamwork in the viscous oceanic microscale.

Eva A Kanso1, Rubens M Lopes2, J Rudi Strickler3,4

  • 1Department of Aerospace and Mechanical Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089; costello@providence.edu kanso@usc.edu.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
|July 17, 2021
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Oceanic microbes form symbiotic consortia for nutrient acquisition. Epibiont ciliates enhance nutrient flux to diatoms, offering a cooperative strategy in nutrient-depleted waters.

Keywords:
cell sizediffusion limitationnutrient limitationphytoplanktonsymbiosis

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Area of Science:

  • Marine microbiology
  • Symbiotic relationships
  • Oceanic nutrient cycling

Background:

  • Nutrient acquisition is vital for oceanic microbes.
  • Protists have evolved solitary and symbiotic strategies for nutrient uptake.
  • Planktonic consortia, formed by temporary or long-lasting attachments, are common in marine environments.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the nutrient flux benefits of a symbiotic relationship between a diatom host and a ciliate epibiont.
  • To determine if planktonic consortia offer advantages for nutrient acquisition in marine ecosystems.

Main Methods:

  • Empirical observations of diatom-ciliate interactions.
  • Mathematical modeling of fluid dynamics and nutrient transport.
  • Comparative analysis of nutrient flux with and without epibionts.

Main Results:

  • Fluid flows generated by ciliate beating increased nutrient flux to the diatom surface by 4-10 times.
  • The diatom *Coscinodiscus wailesii* frequently forms consortia in nutrient-depleted waters.
  • Symbiotic consortia provide a significant cooperative benefit for nutrient acquisition.

Conclusions:

  • The epibiont *Pseudovorticella coscinodisci* provides substantial nutrient flux benefits to its host diatom.
  • Planktonic consortia represent an effective cooperative strategy for nutrient acquisition in challenging marine environments.
  • This symbiotic strategy complements or surpasses nutrient acquisition through sinking for diatoms.