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Predator-Prey Interactions

Predator-Prey Interactions

Predators consume prey for energy. Predators that acquire prey and prey that avoid predation both increase their chances of survival and reproduction (i.e., fitness). Routine predator-prey interactions elicit mutual adaptations that improve predator offenses, such as claws, teeth, and speed, as well as prey defenses, including crypsis, aposematism, and mimicry. Thus, predator-prey interactions resemble an evolutionary arms race.

Fixed Action Patterns

Fixed Action Patterns

A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a specific, hard-wired sequence of behaviors that occurs in response to an external stimulus, called a sign stimulus. The behavior is “fixed” because it is essentially unchangeable—proceeding similarly across individuals of a species every time it occurs.

Frequency-dependent Selection

Frequency-dependent Selection

When the fitness of a trait is influenced by how common it is (i.e., its frequency) relative to different traits within a population, this is referred to as frequency-dependent selection. Frequency-dependent selection may occur between species or within a single species. This type of selection can either be positive—with more common phenotypes having higher fitness—or negative, with rarer phenotypes conferring increased fitness.

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Background and Environment Affect Phenotype

Although the genetic makeup of an organism plays a major role in determining the phenotype, there are also several environmental factors, such as temperature, oxygen availability, presence of mutagens, that can alter an organism’s phenotype.
An example of how genetic background affects phenotype can be seen in horses. The Extension gene in horses is responsible for their coat color. A wild-type gene (EE) produces black pigment in the coat, while a mutant gene (ee) produces red pigment. A...

Mate Choice

Mate Choice

Mate choice—the decision about whom to mate with—is a type of natural selection, since animals must reproduce to pass down their genes. Mate choice is also called intersexual selection because the behavior occurs between the sexes.

Hybrid Zones

Hybrid Zones

Hybrid zones are narrow regions where two closely related species interact, mate, and produce hybrids. Relative to either parent species, hybrids may possess distinct phenotypic or genetic differences that impact their survival and reproductive success. The genetic variances introduced by hybridization influence species diversity and speciation processes within the hybrid zone.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 27, 2025

Incremental Temperature Changes for Maximal Breeding and Spawning in Astyanax mexicanus

Incremental Temperature Changes for Maximal Breeding and Spawning in Astyanax mexicanus

Published on: February 14, 2021

Recognizing the enemy: do predator cues influence hatching in Neotropical annual killifish?

Robson S Godoy¹, Vinicius Weber¹, Luis Esteban Krause Lanés²

¹Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation of Aquatic Ecosystems, UNISINOS University, São Leopoldo, Brazil.

Journal of Fish Biology

|July 21, 2021

Summary

Annual fish embryos adapt to predators by modulating hatching, with responses varying between species based on environmental unpredictability. This bet-hedging strategy aids survival in temporary wetlands.

Keywords:

Austrolebias embryo development hatching temporary ponds temporary wetlands

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Area of Science:

* Evolutionary biology
* Ecology
* Developmental biology

Background:

* Annual fish exhibit remarkable adaptations for survival in temporary wetlands, notably drought-resistant embryos.
* Embryonic development is influenced by environmental factors like photoperiod, temperature, and predator cues.
* Bet-hedging, a risk-spreading strategy, is a potential adaptation to predation, influenced by coevolutionary history and environmental unpredictability.

Purpose of the Study:

* To investigate the impact of predator cues on the embryonic development and hatching of two Austrolebias species.
* To compare the responses of Austrolebias species inhabiting wetlands with differing hydroperiods and predation risks.
* To understand how environmental unpredictability shapes embryonic adaptations in annual fish.

Main Methods:

* Experimental manipulation of predator cues during embryonic development.
* Monitoring of hatching success and embryonic development times for two Austrolebias species.
* Comparative analysis of species-specific responses to predation risk and hydroperiod variation.

Main Results:

* Significant differences in hatching responses to predator cues were observed between the two Austrolebias species.
* Embryonic development times varied between species, irrespective of predator presence.
* Hydroperiod unpredictability was identified as a key factor influencing variations in embryonic development.

Conclusions:

* Annual fish exhibit species-specific adaptations in embryonic development and hatching in response to predation risk.
* The degree of hydroperiod unpredictability is a critical driver of local adaptation in annual fish embryos.
* Future research should explore finer-scale adaptations across greater spatial gradients to fully understand local adaptation in annual fish.