Major threats to European freshwater fish species

In Europe, freshwater fish are the richest group amongst European vertebrates and the second most threatened animal group, surpassed only by freshwater molluscs. The identification of threats is a major benefit for conservation efforts, as it allows actions to be bespoke to specific threats imperilling fish communities in sensitive areas. In this work, we analyse all threats identified under the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species for all European native freshwater dependent fish and lamprey species and relate them with the species distribution, conservation status and migratory phenology. Results show that the current level of imperilment of European freshwater fish fauna is high, especially in the Iberian Peninsula fish communities where low richness is combined with a proportion of threatened species surpassing 50% in several catchments The most relevant threats affecting European freshwater fish are: "Dams & Water Management/Use", "Droughts", "Invasive Non-Native/Alien Species/Diseases", "Agricultural & Forestry Effluents" and "Fishing & Harvesting Aquatic Resources". The present work contributes to the ultimate goal of species conservation by highlighting the main threats affecting freshwater fish species in Europe and by demonstrating how specific regions need particular attention. Increasing longitudinal connectivity stands out as a measure with the potential to increase species' resilience to the several threats affecting them, and it should be coupled with additional efforts to reduce water pollution, control alien species and effectively manage fishing.