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Classical conditioning not only includes the initial pairing of stimuli but also extends to more complex forms, such as higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning involves creating associations beyond the primary conditioned stimulus, resulting in a chain of conditioned responses.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Oct 26, 2025

Classical Short-Delay Eyeblink Conditioning in One-Year-Old Children

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Published on: September 1, 2018

Second-Order Conditioning in Humans.

Jessica C Lee¹

¹School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.

Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience

|July 26, 2021

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Second-order conditioning (SOC) is difficult to demonstrate in humans, unlike in animals. This review explores reasons for this elusiveness and proposes parameters for future research to better understand human SOC.

Keywords:

associative learning causal learning conditioned inhibition feature negative predictive learning second-order conditioning

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Area of Science:

Behavioral psychology
Neuroscience
Human learning

Background:

Second-order conditioning (SOC) is well-documented in non-human animals.
Evidence for SOC in humans is limited and inconsistent.
Understanding human SOC is crucial for comparative psychology and learning theory.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the existing literature on human second-order conditioning.
To identify theoretical and procedural reasons for the difficulty in obtaining SOC in humans.
To propose parameters for future research to facilitate human SOC.

Main Methods:

Literature review of studies investigating second-order conditioning in humans.
Analysis of theoretical frameworks, including conditioned inhibition and rationality.
Identification of critical procedural parameters for eliciting human SOC.

Main Results:

Human SOC is a real phenomenon but challenging to elicit.
Potential confounding factors include conditioned inhibition and cognitive biases.
Specific parameters are necessary to reliably demonstrate human SOC.

Conclusions:

Second-order conditioning is achievable in humans with careful experimental design.
Further research is needed to elucidate the precise mechanisms and optimal conditions for human SOC.
Findings contribute to a broader understanding of associative learning across species.