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Updated: Oct 26, 2025
Isolation and Identification of Waterborne Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Molecular Characterization of their Antibiotic Resistance Genes
Published on: March 3, 2023
Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Isolates Recovered from Herbal Medicinal Products Sold in Nairobi, Kenya
Richard Korir1,2, Omu Anzala2, Walter Jaoko2
1Kenya Medical Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
Background:
Medicinal herbs have been reported to be contaminated with microorganisms indigenous to the environment. These microbes become a threat when they harbour drug-resistant traits.
Objective:
The aim of this study was to evaluate phenotypic and genotypic drug-resistant traits of bacteria isolated from herbal medicinal products in Nairobi, Kenya.
Methods:
We employed an exploratory as well as laboratory-based experimental design. Herbal products were purchased from markets and transported to Kenya Medical Research Institute laboratories for processing and analysis. Microbial contamination and antibiotic susceptibility were determined following standard methods. Antibiotic-resistant genes were determined using polymerase chain reaction. Data were coded and analysed accordingly.
Results:
We collected 138 samples of herbal products in the form of liquids, powders, capsules, creams/lotions, and syrups. In total, 117 samples (84.8%) were contaminated with bacteria and 61 (44.2%) were contaminated with fungi. Bacillus, Klebsiella, Proteus, Staphylococcus, Streptomyces, Escherichia, Enterobacter, Serratia, Yersinia, Morganella, Citrobacter, Erwinia, and Shigella were the bacterial genera identified. Most of the isolated bacteria were generally sensitive to the panel of antibiotics tested, although a few (35 [36.5%]) were resistant; more than half of these were resistant to more than 1 of the antibiotic agents we tested.
Discussion:
We found an association between phenotypic and genotypic drug resistance among the drug-resistant bacteria. This study makes it evident that herbal medicinal products sold in Nairobi are contaminated with drug-resistant bacteria.
Conclusions:
The results show that herbal medicinal products are a potential source of dissemination of multidrug-resistant bacteria. There is an urgent need for specific education programmes, policies, and regulations that address herbal products' safety to prevent the possibility of these pathogens being involved in deadly invasive infections.
