Visualization and quantification of cadmium accumulation, chelation and antioxidation during the process of vacuolar...

Hyperaccumulators store metals in the vacuoles of leaf cells. To investigate the role of vacuolar compartmentalization in Cd accumulation, chelation and induced antioxidation, we quantified the amounts of total cadmium (Cd), Cd²⁺, glutathione (GSH) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) in leaf cells of Solanum nigrum L. The results confirmed that vacuoles were, indeed, the main storage compartments for Cd. We then found that with increased Cd treatment concentration, the proportion of vacuolar Cd in protoplasts showed its ultimate storage capacity (82.24 %-83.40 %), and the Cd concentration stored in the protoplast maintained at a certain level (73.81-77.46 mg L^-1). Besides, studies on different forms of Cd showed that the chelation state was dominant in the protoplast. The large level appearance of Cd²⁺ outside the vacuole revealed the limitations of vacuolar Cd²⁺ sequestration. The relationships between the combined forms of Cd and GSH outside the vacuole (R² = 0.9906) showed GSH was mainly distributed to important compartments for chelation, not to vacuoles. We also demonstrated the presence of ROS-induced oxidative stress and detoxification mediated by the antioxidant GSH in vacuoles, suggesting that sequestration into vacuoles is an active process accompanied by chelation and antioxidant-mediated detoxification.